Over the past three decades, the literature on Filippo Buonarroti has been supplemented by new studies, in which the great friend of G. Babeuf appears before us not only as a propagandist of Babouvism ideas, but also as one of the most active leaders of the Western European revolutionary underground during the restoration of the monarchy in France .1 The proposed essay, based on some archival data and special literature, tells about a little-known episode from the life of Buonarroti, which confirms this opinion .2
At the beginning of 1819, the French ambassador in Bern, Count S. M. Talleyrand, began to receive information from an Italian named Ts. Giacomini Gomano, who greatly alarmed the government of Louis XVIII. They dealt with the activities of political exiles who had found refuge in the Swiss cantons, and F. Buonarroti's secret connections with the carbonari of Lyon, Marseille and Calais. At Talleyrand's insistence, Giacomini traveled to Lyon and infiltrated a meeting of the local Carbonara venta. A detailed report on the results of this mission was sent to Paris in mid-July 1819. It stated that F. Buonarroti, known for his Republican sympathies, who has lived in Geneva for about 14 years, is "a very active member of society" and is closely connected not only with the Lyon Republicans, but also with other Carbonara organizations in France, as well as with their leaders, in particular Colonel Ricard .3
The Royal Police suggested that Giacomini, using his connections with some Republicans, secure a letter of recommendation from Buonarroti to the Turin revolutionaries. "If this is successful," the police manual continued, " the results are interesting. Buonarroti is an extraordinary person: he is a man of intelligence, courage, and perseverance; he is a Republican, and Geneva, his place of residence, may become an important object of observation. " 4 The purpose of the planned provocation was to find out the contacts of the French conspirators with their like-minded people in Italy, where the Carbonari movement was particularly widespread. One can only imagine the scale of the tragedy that would have occurred if Buonarroti had agreed to make the necessary recommendations. But that didn't happen. Already on August 9, 1819, the deputy prefect informed the Minister of the Interior about the fiasco of the Giacomini mission and gave this description to the experienced revolutionary: "Buonarroti is now extremely cautious and circumspect in his speeches and acquaintances. I doubt, however, that his views have changed, but I have reason to believe that his eyes and hopes are more focused on Italy than on France."5
Outwardly, Buonarroti led a modest and seemingly non-political lifestyle, teaching music, singing and Italian. By data

1 A. Saitta. Filippo Buonarroti. Vol. 1 - 2. Roma. 1950 - 1951; A. Galante- Garrone. F. Buonarroti e i rivoluzionari dell'Ottocento, 1828 - 1837. Torino. 1951; A. Lehning. From Buonarroti to Bakunin. Leiden. 1970; P. Onnis Rosa. F. Buonarroti e altri studi. Roma. 1971; P. P. Shchegolev, F. Buonarroti and his book "The Conspiracy of Equals". "Scientific notes" of LSU. Series "Historical Sciences". Issue 6, 1940; see also the biography of F. Buonarroti, written by V. M. Dalin, in the book: F. Buonarroti. A conspiracy for equality. Tt. 1-2. Moscow, 1963.

2 We have used the materials of the AWPR and some documents of the National Archives of France. The latter were obtained in microfilm from MSU Professor A.V. Ado, to whom the author expresses his sincere gratitude.

3 Archives Nationales (hereinafter referred to as AN), F 7 6685, dos. 22.

4 M. Vuilleumier. Buonarroti et ses societes secretes a Geneve (1815 - 1824). "Annales historiques de la Revolution Francaise" (далее-AHRF), Juillet - Septembre 1970, p. 475.

5 Ibid.

page 122

This brought him a very modest income: about 60 crowns per month .6 He was often seen in the narrow streets of Geneva, unassumingly dressed in winter and summer in the same dress: a wide-brimmed hat, a waistcoat, black trousers tucked into short cavalry boots, and a frock coat if it was cold. With his serious, preoccupied air, he gave the impression of a scientist rather than a revolutionary conspirator. This is how his portrait was drawn by the 24-year-old Frenchman Alexandre Andrian (in a letter to his family dated July 5, 1820), 7 who came from Paris to Geneva at the insistence of his family to devote himself to a thorough study of the sciences. Through Forestier, an old revolutionary, this young man became acquainted with Buonarroti and began to take lessons from him.

It didn't take long for Andrian to be influenced by his teacher. After 17 years, he tried to explain how it happened: "The mystery surrounding Buonarroti affected my imagination, painting him in my eyes as an exceptional man, to whom I listened as a genius of freedom." 8 Apparently, the legendary past of the old babuvist also played a significant role here. With his asceticism and boundless devotion to revolutionary ideals, he won over a romantic young Frenchman. But soon Andrian began to realize that Buonarroti's life was not limited to teaching. One day during class, the teacher talked about the Neapolitan Revolution, then started talking about the carbonari, lowering his voice to a whisper. Since then, he has repeatedly returned to this topic, but spoke more in hints. However, even these infrequent conversations left an indelible impression on Andrian: he wanted to be at least a little like the heroes Buonarroti knew so well. On October 9, 1821, Andrian became a member of the secret society.

Later, in his memoirs, he described how his reception took place. First, he had to answer questions about his attitude to the monarchy, religion, and family (among the questions was: "Which government gives the people the greatest opportunities for freedom and public well-being?"); then, leading him blindfolded into the great hall of the" Council", new questions were asked, after which the president (it was Buonarroti) asked to recite the oath of the initiate to the society: to promote the love of freedom and hatred of tyranny, to promote the practical destruction of monarchical regimes, to love and support the brothers in society 9 . After that, the president announced his admission to the society. The blindfold was removed from Andrian's eyes, and he found himself surrounded by several dozen people, among whom he recognized many respected residents of Geneva. The whole atmosphere in the hall indicated that the newly initiated was in the premises of a Masonic lodge. After a while, Buonarroti explained to him that this was done for secret reasons: if a candidate was refused admission to the society, then before leaving they would untie his eyes to give the impression of an ordinary Masonic meeting.

Andrian officially became a member of the lodge "Sincere Friends", which was the legal cover of the "Society of highly reliable masters". The Lodge was closed by Napoleon and resumed its meetings in 1818.10 The origins of the "Society of Highly Durable Craftsmen", led by Buonarroti, go back to the Napoleonic period11 . By his own admission, the High-Income Masters were formed in 1809-1810 after the merger of the anti-Bonapartist underground societies of the Adelphi

6 AN, F7 6685, dos. 22.

7 A. Andryane. Souvenirs de Geneve. T. I. P. 1839, pp. 137, 139.

8 A. Andryane. Memoires d'un prisonnier d'Etat au Spielberg. Vol. 1. P. 1837, pp. 23 - 24.

9 G. Weill. Ph. Buonarroti. "Revue histarique", Juillet - Aout 1901, p. 267.

10 Ibid.

11 A" Note "written by the French police in 1824 stated that" the society was formed shortly after the fall of the French Republic and the usurpation of the throne by Bonaparte... To this day, the order honors the memory of Oudet, a French general who fell at the Battle of Wagram; it was later reported in the published history of Philadelphia that he was killed on Napoleon's orders as the founder of the secret society of Philadelphia... Mobile Deacon Buonarroti, who was well aware of the order's secrets, confided to Adept Andrian that the society had undergone various changes and had been rebuilt many times at the request of its members... The last form of society was the Adelphi in France and Italy... "(AN, F 7 6684, dos. 7 (Societes secretes, sublimes Maitres parfaits), "Memoire").

page 123

and the "Philadelphia", which operated in France and Italy 12 . He told Andrian that he had become a "Philadelphia" while still in the consulate, and that after being sent to Geneva in 1806 under police supervision, "he continued... successfully attract patriots and plot against the oppressors of France and Italy." Buonarroti confessed to Andrian that he had also participated in General Malet's anti-Bonapartist speech in October 181213 .

The "Highly resistant Masters" were a secret organization with a complex hierarchical structure. The organization consisted of three levels, called degrees, each with its own political program. Buonarroti was convinced that the interests of the people should be protected only by a secret organization and first of all by its top. "Those who wanted to transform the secret society into a completely democratic organization in terms of its goals and forms, "he wrote," would inevitably reveal its secret... I believe that there must be several degrees, whose authority will gradually increase, and whose doctrines will become more complex, from the simplest moral and political ideas to the more complex and bolder ones; the degree that has the highest secrecy has the right to lead all the others. " 14 The ideal of F. Buonarroti was a secret society in which only the leaders have the most complete idea of the final tasks of the struggle - a kind of directory, and all other members can only be informed within certain limits.

The symbol of faith of the first degree, which was conventionally called " the church "(its members called themselves" wise men"), was the moral and religious principles of Masonic brotherhood and equality. The second - degree initiates of the secret, the "high elect", formed a "synod" whose doctrine included the ideas of the republic and popular sovereignty: "There can be no true freedom until everyone, without exception, is introduced to the legislation. Legislative power can be delegated to one person only if that person is elected by many, but it cannot be hereditary or lifelong. Any person has the right to kill the usurper of supreme power " 15 . Finally, the third degree-the " areopagus "or" great firmament " - was strictly classified. Its principles in the early 50s of our century were revealed by the Italian scientist A. Saitta. In the National Library of Paris, he found several sheets with a Latin text written in Buonarroti's hand. From their contents, he was able to establish that it formulated a hitherto unknown credo of the third degree. It contained, in the most general terms, principles close to those of the early Communists: "Let all distinctions be abolished and all property united in one common treasury, and the motherland, the sole ruler and most tender mother, will equally provide bread, education, and work for all its beloved and free children."16
The third degree connected Buonarroti ideologically with Babeuf and the "equals" of 1796. According to the French researcher J. Daughtry, "the great firmament" was like "the last square of Babeuf's followers" 17 . It is impossible not to agree with A. Saitta, who argued that knowledge of the Areopagus program for researchers of this problem is equivalent to the Ariadne thread when considering the international secret activities of Buonarroti18 . P. P. Shchegolev, without having such data on the ideology of the "High Level".-

12 A. Saitta. Op. cit. Vol 2, p. 95.

13 A. Andriane. Souvenirs de Geneve. T. 2. P. 1838, pp. 206-207; on the Malet plot, see: V. M. Dalin. Napoleon and the Babuvists. "People and Ideas", Moscow, 1970; A. Z. Manfred. Napoleon Bonaparte, Moscow, 1971; D. M. Tugan-Baranovsky. The second conspiracy of General Male. Voprosy Istorii, 1974, No. 8, his own, General Male, The Philadelphia Society and Napoleon. "French Yearbook, 1973", Moscow, 1975.

14 A. Saitta. Op. cit. Vol. 2, pp. 92 - 116.

15 AN, F7 6684, dos. 7: Profession de Foi du Synode de O, ou rassemblement des Sublimes Elus.

16 A. Saitta. Op. cit. Vol. 2, pp. 91 - 92; ejusd. Una conferma irrefutabile: il terzo gredo buonarrotiano. "Critica storira", 1969, N 6, pp. 706 - 711; A. Lehning. Buonarroti and His International Secret Societies. "International Review of Social History", vol. 1, 1956, pp. 120 - 124.

17 Zh. Daughtry. Babouvist tradition after Babeuf's death and before the Revolution of 1830. "French Yearbook, 1960", Moscow, 1964, p. 182.

18 A. Saitta. Filippo Buonarroti. Vol. 1, pp. 90 - 92.

page 124

the code of young masters " (he died in 1936, and his work was published posthumously), came to the erroneous conclusion that for a former babuvist, participation in such a society "is class-related... it meant moving from the position of a proletarian revolutionary to the path of petty-bourgeois, national revolutionism. " 19 In reality, this evolution did not occur. If this were not the case, it is unlikely that Buonarroti's book "The Conspiracy for Equality" would have appeared, defending Babuvist principles.

Buonarroti was an internationalist revolutionary. He did not confine himself to the national framework and considered the Italian liberation movement only as an initial stage; the second step, in his opinion, was the destruction of all European monarchies, and then the construction of a new social system based on the community of property .20 One of Buonarroti's closest associates, a member of the mysterious "areopagus", is an Italian named J. R. R. Tolkien. Prati, "Philadelphia" from 1809, wrote in his memoirs that the society sought not just to conquer the republic, but to "change social conditions" and establish a truly democratic system. According to him, the "areopagus", which "neither Napoleon, nor the Bourbons, nor Louis Philippe could destroy the police", " consisted of Babeuf's students, united by F. Buonarroti." They alone were aware of the goals of the society, its history, date of origin, development, and all its various activities .21
Due to the exceptional secrecy of the political program of the Areopagus, the "Society of Highly Resistant Masters", according to Buonarroti, could become the cementing foundation of the anti-monarchist underground movement in a number of European countries. He told Andrian, whom he had initiated into the secret of the "high chosen one", that the task of the society was to "destroy all European monarchical regimes and achieve popular sovereignty"22 . The piecemeal nature of his plan not only did not exclude, but even suggested, the possibility of agreement with moderate circles at various stages of the struggle. "A characteristic feature of the society," the French Police Note noted, "is participation in the affairs of other organizations that are widespread." 23 In the words of a political adventurer in the service of the Austrian government, "the Great Firmament was clearly trying to extend its influence even to those associations whose goals were" contrary to its own". J. R. R. Tolkien wrote about the same thing. Prati 24 . According to Andrian, Buonarroti sent " skillful and numerous emissaries... in Germany, Poland and even Russia, to give new strength secret societies"25 .

In France and Italy, "Highly skilled craftsmen" sought to establish contacts with carbonari, in Germany-with organizations that emerged on the basis of the "tugendbund", in Greece - with"hetaerii". Perhaps it was under the influence of Buonarroti that the Polish " philomats "(a secret organization of students of the University of Vilna, which operated in line with the Szlachta revolutionism) in the early 20s of the XIX century.began to transform their organization into the"Philadelphia Society". This point of view, which needs additional argumentation, is defended by a Polish researcher

19 P. P. Shchegolev. Op. ed., p. 246.

20 J. Candeloro. Istoriya sovremennoy Italii [History of Modern Italy], vol. 2, Moscow, 1961, p. 58.

21 Cit. by: A. Saitta. Una conferma irrefutabile: il terzo gredo buonarrotiano, p. 709. Мемуары Дж. Prati was published anonymously in the London weekly magazine "The Penny Satirist" in the late 30s of the XIX century. They contained unique information about the company's structure and program. Suffice it to say that Prati explained the doctrines not only of the first two degrees, but also of the third, the areopagus. However, these memoirs did not attract serious attention of researchers, and their republication in an abridged form (P. Pedrotti. Note autobiografiche del cospiratore trentino G. Prati. Rovereto. 1926) can not be considered quite successful. P. Pedrotti did not attach importance to the doctrine of the "areopagus" and did not publish it in his edition. Only the works of A. Saitta and A. Lehning aroused a well-deserved interest in the memoirs of J. R. R. Tolkien. Prati.

22 AN, F7 6685, dos, 1: Extrait d'un rapport de M-r le Comte de Strasso'ldo, gouverneur du Milanais, a M-r le President de la police 19 fevr. 1823.

23 Ibid., dos. 7: "Mernoire". The French police described the society with the word "proteiforme", that is, acting in various forms.

24 J. Witt-Dorring. Les societes secretes de France et d'ltalie ou fragments de rua vie et de mon temps. P. 1830, p. 9; A. Saitta. Una conferma.., p. 709.

25 A. Andryane. Memoires d'un prisonnier d'Etat... Vol. 1, p. 30.

page 125

V. Lukashevich 26 . Consequently, in the concrete practical activity of "Highly Reliable Masters", as J. R. R. Tolkien rightly pointed out. Candeloro, "an adaptive calculation was not excluded, so long as it did not tarnish the small group of the chosen, who made up the highest degree of society."27
This shows that the widespread opinion about Buonarroti carbonarism is not entirely true 28 . However, it is necessary to recognize his active role in these organizations. In 1820, he took part in the activities of the Venta, formed in Savoy (30 km from Geneva). Similar vents existed in other places more or less close to Geneva. J. Prati, together with Schnell, created a sect in the canton of Vaud called the "Club of St. Francois", whose members were J. Muret and General F.-C. Lagarpe 29 . According to J. R. R. Tolkien: Mazzini, Buonarroti not only participated in the reorganization of the Carbonara societies, but even served as the head of the "Central Venta" 30 . Nevertheless, it would be a mistake to consider it a carbonarium. Buonarroti was skeptical of this society, blaming it for its lack of "clear and consistent doctrine", "frivolity in the selection of candidates", "insufficient secrecy", but considered it necessary to participate in the activities of carbonari for tactical reasons, considering this as a "way to indirectly attract" to his organization "the most sober people from the most oppressed civil society classes " 31 .

Perhaps of all the revolutionaries of that time, it was Buonarroti who was most suitable for the role of head of an organization of this type. Born in Italy, by a decree of the Convention of May 27, 1793, he received French citizenship "for services to humanity". Under the Directory, a prisoner; under Napoleon, a political exile; during the Restoration and up to the revolution of 1830, a political exile, persecuted by all monarchical regimes; he enjoyed authority in revolutionary circles and was revered by them as a "patriarch." 32 When, after the defeat of the Italian revolutions, their active figures fled to Switzerland, they were all warmly welcomed by Buonarroti, and some of them (B. Bossi, J. Allemandi, J. F. de Meester, J. Malinverni) became members of his society. Andrian recalled that at any time of the day or night, "old Montagnard" was ready to help the exiles: "The last sou, the last piece of bread - for the hungry. It was in vain that his poor old wife protested against such ruinous hospitality; he replied, "When we were hard pressed, we were helped, and I am happy to repay the debt now." 33
The question arises: have the "High-income Masters" managed to extend their influence to other organizations? Buonarroti believed that his plan was a brilliant success, and already in 1812 the Areopagus "spread its branches across Europe." 34 The French police were even more categorical: "It is established on the basis of the testimony of adherents that the order has spread not only in France and Italy, but also in other countries."-

26 W. Lukaszewicz. Wplyw masonerii, karbonaryzmu i Jozefa Mazziniego na polskq mysl rewolucyjng ("W siulecie Wiosny Ludow, 1848 - 1849". T. III. Wiosna Ludow w Europie. Czgsc druga. Warszawa. 1951, str. 196).

27 J. Candeloro. Edict, Op. 2, p. 59.

28 The historian J. R. R. Tolkien Romano-Catania, following A. Vannucci and many other contemporaries of Buonarroti, believed that his activity took place only within the boundaries of the Carbonarian society (G. Romano-Catania. F. Buonarroti. Milano. 1902; "I Martiri della liberata italianna dal 1794 al 1848. Memorie raccolte da Atto Vannucci". Vol. 1. Torino. 1850, p. 299. The same one. The opinion was shared by P. P. Shchegolev (op. cit., p. 246).

29 M. Vuilleumier. Op. cit., pp. 485-486. "Even if their connections (Buonarroti and the French carbonarians. d. T. - B.)," wrote M. Vuilleumier, a researcher on this issue, " were not always direct, numerous indications indicate that these connections took place and that Buonarroti was he is well informed about the plots being prepared against the Bourbons" (Ibid., p. 486).

30 F. Buonarroti. Conspiracy for Equality, vol. 2, Moscow, 1948, p. 335.

31 A. Sailla. Filippo Buonarroti. Vol. 2, pp. 95 - 106.

32 "Carteggio del Conte F. Confalonieri ed altri documenti spettanti alia sua biografia publicato con annotozioni storiche a cura di G. Gallavresi". Parte I, Milano. 1910, pp. 409 - 410.

33 A. Andryane. Souvenirs de Geneve. Vol. 1, pp. 225 - 225,

34 A. Saitta. Filippo Buonarroti. Vol. 2, p. 95.

page 126

in other European and American countries " 35 . Modern researchers are by no means unanimous on this issue. The view of A. Leningthat the "Society of Highly Skilled Craftsmen" has become the "international headquarters of the revolution" is disputed by the American historian E. Spitzer. He is skeptical of the idea of the existence of a "revolutionary union" and believes that the role of Buonarrotis has been exaggerated in the literature .36 We think this opinion is more fair. So far, we can only talk about the existence of certain sections of society in Italy and Switzerland, about some separate and, apparently, still random contacts of Buonarroti himself with French and German revolutionaries. As for the Apennine Peninsula, here the" Highly Resistant masters " managed to subdue the Carbonara ventas in a number of places. From Turin, where the representatives of the "areopagus" were located, the activity of the" churches " extended to the cities of Piedmont, the Lombard-Venetian region, the duchies of Parma, Tuscany and Modena, and the Papal State .37 Buonarroti, under the pseudonym "Polycarp", performed the functions of a" mobile deacon", consisting in the connection of" synods "with the"great firmament". It is interesting that Russian diplomats knew about the activities of "Highly Reliable Masters" and repeatedly mentioned them in their reports .38
Areopagus was sensitive to changes in the political situation. On September 17, 1820, the" churches "in Italy received the decree of the" great firmament", which ordered them to provide all possible assistance" not only to the revolutionary actions in Spain and Naples", but also to other similar attempts taking place on the continent .39 In general, those years marked by almost simultaneous revolutionary movements, uprisings, and conspiracies in various parts of Europe (Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece, and Russia) were characterized by a desire for international unity of noble and petty-bourgeois revolutionaries. The Andrian mission in Italy is a manifestation of this trend.

At the beginning of March 1822, B. Bossi, an active member of the revolutionary movement in Italy, returned from Paris to Geneva.During his short stay in Switzerland (May - June 1821), he got to know Buonarroti intimately and took part in meetings of his society. He spent about a year in France, which became one of the centers of Italian emigration. L. Angeloni, F. Salfi, S. Santarosa, J. Collegno, C. Balbo, F. Ugoni and many others fled there from Austrian persecution at various times. Some of them, especially the Piedmontese military, managed to infiltrate the French army using forged certificates of their alleged Swiss origin .40 In France, the Italians entered into relations with the French Carbonari, and through them with the Spanish. "We talked," Bossi said, " to certain Frenchmen who were conspiring against the Restoration government. Among them was Colonel Favier. He got in touch with us through our old friend Collegno. We also met the famous deputy Manuel. These gentlemen assured us of their cooperation. " 41
At one of these meetings, which took place at the end of 1821, it was decided to send to Italy "some emissary to maintain the spirit and restore the old hopes of the people." The French carbonarians promised their help, as well as the cooperation of all those with whom they maintained contacts. "I was ordered," Bossi recalls, " to prepare general instructions (they were approved by our association in Paris) and to go to Geneva, where, with the help of the Buonarroti Society, I would find the most effective way out.

35 AN, F7 6684, dos. 7: "Memoire".

36 A. Lehning. Buonarroti.., pp. 119 - 124; A. B. Spitzer. The French Carbonari against the Bourbon. Cambridge (Mass.). 1971, pp. 201 - 202, 266 - 272.

37 J. Candeloro. Edict. op. 2, pp. 58-59; "History of Italy", Vol. 2, Moscow 1970, pp. 86-88; M. I. Kovalskaya. Carbonari Movement in Italy, Moscow, 1971, pp. 52-54.

38 AVPR, F. Chancellery of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1820, d. 4505, l. 89.

39 AN, F7 6685, dos. 1: Copie d'une depeche de M-r le C-te de Strassoldo a M. le Prince de Metternich. Milan, 24 Janvier 1823.

40 Correspondance generate de Chateaubriand". T. 4. P. 1913, pp. 100-101. Chateaubriand had information that the Piemontians received these certificates from Swiss "secret societies".

41 B. Bossi. Extraits des souvenirs. AHRF, Juillet-Septembre 1970, pp. 498 - 503.

page 127

a suitable candidate for this mission. When I arrived in Geneva, I consulted with him, and after some discussion, he informed me that Andrian would undertake this dangerous journey. " 42 The latter agreed to fulfill the mission assigned to him. "I had the opportunity," he wrote, "to prove my love for Italy by stronger means than words." 43 These testimonies of B. Bossi were confirmed in the materials of the Austrian police. As for the promise of French carbonari, it apparently was not unfounded. It is known that they tried to prevent the armed intervention of France in Spain to suppress the uprising led by R. Riego, which was undertaken .the Government of Louis XVIII in accordance with the decisions of the Congress of Verona of the Holy Alliance. Deputy Manuel was even expelled from the Chamber on March 1, 1823, for his heated speech against the impending invasion of Spain. Carbonari campaigned in the army even when the French units began to cross the Pyrenees. Colonel Zh. came out to meet them. Favier with a group of daredevils, which included Italians. Waving the tricolor banner, he wanted to stop the troops and encourage them to march against the Bourbons. [44 ] It is quite possible that the French carbonari were ready to support the Italian revolutionaries.

Buonarroti was in charge of Andrian's preparations for his mission. Its main purpose was to restore the old ties lost after 1821 with the Italian revolutionaries and coordinate their activities throughout the country. Andrian was granted the rights of "extraordinary deacon of Italy", which gave him the opportunity to attract new members and create organizations under the auspices of the"areopagus". He had numerous letters of recommendation, addresses, statutes of the society, instructions and other documents .45 In the conditions when, after the suppression of revolutionary actions, pessimism and disillusionment seized the majority of patriots, Buonarroti proposed other, more effective means of struggle and wanted to link all the actions into a single whole. The "Act", signed by the " mobile deacon Polycarp "(this document was available to Andrian), referred to the decision of the" great firmament "to convene a general congress of Italian revolutionaries, which would consist of" representatives of the various states of Italy "and create a" special council " to coordinate the activities of all secret societies .46 Sending his emissary to Milan, Buonarroti instructed him to establish contacts with the" federates "- members of the defeated secret society" Italian Federation", headed by F. Eonfalonieri, which sought the liberation of Lombardo-Venice from Austrian oppression and the creation of a constitutional kingdom .47
On December 18, 1822, Andrian left Geneva, was in Milan on December 26, and was captured by the Austrian gendarmes on January 18, 1823. The reasons for this rapid disclosure are still unclear. Bossy attributed this to Andrian's inexperience. He said that on his way to Milan, Andrian stopped for a few days in Lugano (on the border with Lombardy) with friends of Buonarroti, Lombard exiles. There, during the lavish meetings held by the Italians, when rousing speeches were delivered at the table, Andrian allowed himself a few mysterious remarks that might in some way explain the nature of the mission entrusted to him. In those days, Lugano was awash with Austrian agents, and Bossi even allowed their presence among the guests during meetings with Andrian. "We learned later from reliable sources," he wrote, "that upon his arrival in Milan, he (Andrian - D. T.-B.) was immediately signaled as an unreliable person." 48 The police established for the Andes-

42 Ibid., pp. 499 - 500.

43 A. Andryane. Memoires d'un prisonnier d'Etat... Vol. 1, p. 27.

44 A. Debidur. Diplomatic History of Europe, vol. 1, Moscow, 1947, p. 219; "History of France", vol. 2, Moscow, 1973, p. 185.

45 AVPR, F. Chancellery of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1823, 813, l. 59.

46 Там же; AN, F7 6685, dos 1: Papiers d'Andryane saisis a Milan a l'epoque de son arrestation.

47 There is reason to believe that F. Confalonieri was a member of the Buonarrotist society, which he joined as early as 1814 (see: J. Rath. The Provisional Austrian Regime in Lombardy - Venetie (1814 - 1815). L. 1969, p. 215).

48 B. Bossi. Op. cit, p. 501.

page 128

rianom surveillance, revealed all his appearances and after some time arrested him. A cache of secret papers was also seized, which would have been enough to convict a lot of people.

The investigation began. While at first the Austrian authorities were prepared to assume that Andrian had come to Lombardy for purely intelligence purposes as an agent of another state, 49 the nature of the mission became increasingly clear as the documents were deciphered (an alphabetical report card was found in the cache). Soon the police had no doubt that they were dealing with a representative of an important revolutionary center. The investigation lasted about 9 months. The accused behaved with dignity, did not betray anyone and did not say more than what the materials seized with him said. Even in the words of Bossi, a very strict critic who was skeptical of Buonarroti's candidacy from the very beginning, Andrian became a model of "rare resilience and real composure."

The Austrians, interested in the high - profile trial, decided to combine two completely different political cases - Andrian and the Federates-into one. In November 1823, the death sentence was passed on F. Confalonieri, A. Andrianu, P. Borsieri, G. Castilla, G. Pallavici, A. Tonelli and F. Arese. In addition, some members of the Buonarrotist society who lived in France and Switzerland were sentenced to death in absentia: B. Bossi, F. Ugoni, J. Arrivabene, J. Filippo, as well as" federates " who managed to go abroad. However, an imperial decree commuted the death penalty to life imprisonment for Andrian and Confalonieri, and various prison terms for the remaining 51 . Vienna deliberately exaggerated the scale of the case. The official indictment stated that the" Society of Highly Skilled Craftsmen " is committed to the destruction of all monarchical regimes and has numerous sections in most European countries52 .

Austrian Chancellor Karl Metternich followed the process with great attention. He was constantly kept up to date. On January 24, the governor of Milan, Strassoldo, sent him a detailed report with an analysis of the materials seized from Andrian. It was found that " the statute and the Italian statutes... corrected by the same hand that wrote the letter of recommendation to Rome to a certain person, " - by hand ."the famous Angeloni, former Consul of the Roman Republic, now residing in Paris." 53 This" discovery " of the investigation clarifies a lot. Luigi Angeloni is not an ordinary figure in the Italian liberation movement, but one of its patriarchs, a Republican and Democrat closely associated with Buonarroti. He was an "archon" of the "Philadelphians" and an active participant in a number of anti-Napoleonic conspiracies (deputy of the Legislative Corps Arena - in 1800, General Male - in 1808 and 1812). It is clear that the former "archon" took a very active part in the preparation of the Andrian expedition 54 . Andrian also had other letters of recommendation, two of which were written by F. Hijacking and W. Both were in Paris) , and one by the famous French carbonari Colonel Ricard. [55 ] "Recommendations made in vague terms,"Strassoldo reported to Metternich," were almost all addressed to suspicious individuals arrested for taking part in the latest plots." In this report, Andrian was assessed as "an emissary of the lodge of Italian exiles in Switzerland, operating under the leadership of the great firmament of France."56
49 J. M. Roberts. The Mythology of the Secret Societes. L. 1972, p. 329.

50 For information about the cipher system, see: AN, F 7 6685, dos. 1: Extrait authentique du species facti relatif au nomme Philippe Buonarroti.

51 J. Candeloro. Edict. soch. Vol. 2, pp. 151-152.

52 A. Luzio. Nuovi documenti sul processo Confalonieri. Roma - Milano. 1908, pp. 216 - 232.

53 AN, F7 6684, dos. 1: Extrait de la Procedure criminelle d'Andryane; F7 6685, dos. 1: Copie d'une depeche de M-r le C-te de Strassoldo a M. le Prince de Metternich. Milan, 24 Janvier 1823.

54 "I Martiri della liberate...". Vol.2, pp. 62 - 71; P. Onnis Rosa. Op. cit., pp. 283 - 301.

55 AVPR, f. Chancellery of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1823, d. 813, ll. 60-60 ob.

66 AN, F7 6685, dos. 1: Copie d'une depeche de M-r le C-te de Strassoldo.

page 129

Metternich, too, was inclined to believe that the center of society was located in Paris. 57 He attached great importance to the whole affair, intending to use it in his diplomatic combinations. Metternich wrote to the Austrian envoy to the Russian court, L. Lebzeltern: "We will benefit greatly from the Milan trials"58 . At the very beginning of the investigation, the Vienna Cabinet sent materials about Andrian to the governments of France and the Holy Union states, including Russia .59 The purpose of these demarches was to unite monarchical Europe against the alleged "international conspiracy". The trial was reported in detail by many European newspapers 60 . In the German principalities, Metternich distributed a "Memorandum" on the "revolutionary threat", after which the already weak sprouts of parliamentarism and democracy were stifled .61
Legitimists were particularly outraged by Switzerland. After all, Buonarroti sent Andrian from Geneva to Milan (this was established in the course of the investigation beyond dispute), and it was in the Swiss cantons that the Italian exiles found refuge. This issue was discussed at the Verona Congress of the Holy Alliance. The "Andrian case" added even more fuel to the fire. On April 7, 1823, a message was sent to the Geneva authorities from Bern, stating: "The friendly sovereigns( i.e., the states of the Holy Alliance) ... bitterly express their regret that, despite all previous warnings and promises,.. these exiled conspirators, these suspicious foreigners, are still in large numbers in your city and on your territory. They claim to be in touch with all the discontented people in Piedmont and Lombardy who are busy preparing revolutions in these countries, as well as in France, when the war in Spain will create difficulties and dangers there."62 The Berne Federal Directory demanded the immediate expulsion of all "conspirators". A few days later, Fischer, a member of the Privy Council, arrived in Geneva with a list compiled by the Austrian Ambassador to Switzerland, de Scro, of 19 Italians involved in various anti-monarchist plots.

On 21 April, the Bernese Government sent a "new list" to the Geneva Council, revised and supplemented by de Scro and including 11 other individuals, including Buonarroti. The following was written about him: "A Tuscan, an old revolutionary. He is to be regarded as one of the chief sectarians, and probably one of the intermediaries in the correspondence between the Italian conspirators and their comrades on the other side of the mountains and beyond. It was he who drew Andrian, now arrested in Milan, into the company, and gave him numerous instructions with a list of ways to communicate with various Italian states. He lives in Geneva. " 63 On 24 April, the Geneva authorities decided to expel Buonarroti and the other Italians on the list. Apparently, the Austrian police intended to put them under surveillance, as they requested information about the passports issued to them. It was reported that Buonarroti received a passport on May 13 "to travel to England via Lausanne, Bern... and Germany " 64 .

Since that time, other states of the Holy Alliance have joined the campaign raised by the Austrians. On May 14, 1823, Talleyrand, Louis XVIII. ' s ambassador in Bern, sent a note to the President of the Federal Directory, accompanied by a list of the following documents:

57 Metternich, when interrogating Confalonieri, demanded to know the names of persons who, in his opinion, were members of the steering committee, which excites from Paris "all the revolutionary movements that broke out from time to time in Europe" (N. I. Turgenev. Russia and the Russians, Moscow, 1915, pp. 347-348).

58 "Les rapports diplomatiques de Lebzeltern, ministre d'Autriche a la cour de Rus-sie (1816 - 1826)". St. Petersburg. 1913, p. 265.

59 AVPR, f. Chancellery of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1823, 813.

60 "Son of the Fatherland", 1824, N 6, p. 28; "Le Conservateur impartial". St. Peters-bourg. 5.II.1824; "Moniteur universal", 30 - 31.I.1824; "Journal des Debats", 31.I.1824. These newspapers reprinted the report on the "Andrian and Confalonieri case" from the Milan press. The trial was also mentioned in the "Yearbook" of K.-L. Lesur for 1823 (Lesur. Annuaire historique universal pour 1823. P. 1823).

61 A. Debidur. Edict. op., pp. 223-224; J. M. Roberts. Op. cit., p. 331.

62 M. Pianzola. La mysterieuse expulsion de Philippe Buonarroti. "Cahiers inter-nationaux", N 61, Decembre 1954, p. 55.

63 Ibid., p. 56; P. Onnis Rosa. Op. cit., p. 191.

64 M. Pianzola. Op. cit., p. 58.

page 130

10 French subjects, including Buonarroti, were subject to immediate expulsion. The ambassadors of Sardinia, Prussia and the Kingdom of both Sicilies presented their claims to Switzerland. The position of the Russian ambassador in Bern, Baron Krudener, can be judged from his letter to Alexander I in May 1823, in which it was noted that the situation created in Switzerland would be the subject of discussion at a special conference in Paris. The cantonal authorities, the ambassador further argued, "are powerless to do anything against secret societies, against the press, or against suspicious individuals, because the dominant opinion of the middle classes is too permeated with liberalism... That's why all the demarches against exiles... they were more or less inconclusive. " 65
It is interesting that almost all the notes had Buonarroti's name as one of the first ones. De Moustier, who had replaced Talleyrand as French ambassador in Bern, added him to the list again: "Buonarroti (Philippe), of Tuscan origin but French citizenship. He has been living in Geneva for about 17 years. He was a teacher of languages, mathematics, and music. " 66 With regard to these notes, the Geneva authorities informed Berne on September 10, 1823, that Buonarroti had left Geneva "on May 16 by stagecoach for Lausanne. In Lausanne it was 19 in the evening, from where the next day I left for Bern " 67 . In fact, Buonarroti, although he arrived in Lausanne, did not take the stagecoach to Bern, but changed the route. At first, he was hiding out in the canton of Vaud, not far from Geneva, at the home of his friend J. R. R. Tolkien. Fazi, and then with a passport in the name of J.-J. Raymond left for Brussels. A few months later, he sent a letter from there, saying that he had settled in well and found his comrades back in Napoleon's exile. Buonarroti's precautions were not unnecessary. Later, Metternich, in a conversation with one of the Swiss diplomats, expressed regret that General de Meester and Buonarroti had left his hands. In his opinion, the federal directory "simply turned a blind eye to them"68 .

As for Andrian, he was released from Spielberg in 1832 after serving about 10 years. In 1837-1838, in Paris, in four volumes, his "Notes of a Political Prisoner" were published, which were read with the same interest as the famous "My Dungeons" of another prisoner of Spielberg, S. Pellico .69 Andrian's memoirs were highly appreciated by A. I. Herzen, who expressed a wish for their translation into other foreign languages .70
The "Andrian affair" is not an accidental episode in the revolutionary movement of those years, when the logic of the struggle already led to the establishment of separate international contacts. The Russian Decembrists, the Polish Philomates, the French and Italian Carbonarians, members of the Greek "Hetaerias" and German student organizations, and the Spanish rebels saw their enemies not only in the Bourbons or the Habsburgs, but in the Holy Alliance as a whole . 71 J. Byron crossed the continent to fight for the freedom of Greece. Hundreds of 72 Italians defended the Spanish Revolution. Led by Colonel Favier, the French Carbonari tried to prevent the royal intervention in Spain. Buonarroti caught the zeitgeist. He was concerned not only with Italy, but with the whole of Europe. Although his" Society of Highly Skilled Craftsmen " was unable to fulfill its tasks due to the conditions of that time, Buonarroti's name is associated with one of the first attempts to unite revolutionary forces (mainly Romanesque countries) on the basis of Babuvist ideas.

65 AVPR, F. Chancellery of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1823, d. 813, ll. 43-46 ob.

66 M. Pianzola. Op. cit., p. 60.

67 Ibid.

68 Ibid., p. 62.

69 See M. I. Kovalskaya. Italy through the eyes of Russians. Voprosy Istorii, 1976, No. 7.

70 A. I. Herzen. Collected Works, vol. 7, Moscow, 1956, pp. 360-361; vol. 9, Moscow, 1956, p. 144.

71 For more information, see: M. V. Nechkina. Decembrists in the world-historical process. Voprosy istorii, 1975, No. 12; G. A. Nevelev. December 14, 1825. (Official versions and Western Europe). Ibid., 1975, No. 11.

72 J. Candeloro. Op. op.2, p. 177.

page 131

Permanent link to this publication: