PALEOPATHOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE POPULATION OF KRASNOYARSK (Pokrovsky and Voskresensk-Preobrazhensky necropolises of the XVII-early XX century)*

The number of publications on the paleopathology of Siberia is small. As a result of excavations of the Pokrovsky (XVII-XVIII centuries) and Voskresensk-Preobrazhensky (XVII - early XX centuries) necropolises of Krasnoyarsk, 509 skeletons of adults and children were obtained. Their study revealed tuberculosis of the spine and syphilis in adults, rickets, tuberculosis and congenital syphilis in children. Injuries were most common in the ribs, hand, forearm, and lower leg bones. The results of studying skeletons from two necropolises give an idea of the state of health of the population of Krasnoyarsk from the moment of the foundation of the Krasnoyarsk prison in 1628 to the beginning of the XX century.

Key words: paleopathology, tuberculosis, syphilis, injuries, osteoarthritis, Krasnoyarsk.

Introduction

Bone remains of Siberian inhabitants of past centuries are of interest for reconstructing its history. In the 16th century, Russian industrialists began to populate Eastern Siberia. The northern and middle parts of the Yenisei basin were the first to be developed. An important stage in the process of colonization of this territory was the foundation of the Yenisei prison in 1619 and the Krasnoyarsk One in 1628 [Bakhrushin, 1959, p. 23; Kopylov, 1965, p. 22]. During the first century of its existence, the Krasnoyarsk prison had a predominantly military function and its population consisted mainly of a garrison [Gorod..., 1981, pp. 5-6]. The results of the analysis of adult skeletons from the Pokrovsky necropolis of the XVII-XVIII centuries confirm the fact recorded by historical data - the first settlers of Krasnoyarsk were migrants from the western, central and eastern regions of Russia.-

* This work was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research and the French National Research Center (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique) within the framework of the competition of joint Russian-French research projects of international associated laboratories No. 12-04-093106.

page 140
and northern regions of Russia [Reis, 2009]. Comparison with the published data shows that the colonists were similar in their physical characteristics to the inhabitants of the central and northern regions (Medvedeva et al., 2004, p. 132).

This work is devoted to the study of pathological changes on skeletons from the Pokrovsky and Voskresensk-Preobrazhensky necropolises in Krasnoyarsk, which were buried from the XVII to the beginning of the XX century. These changes indicate injuries, joint damage, and infectious diseases.

Pokrovsky and Voskresensk-Preobrazhensky necropolises

Krasnoyarsk has a unique situation. In the context of the development of the historical center of the city, the state bodies for the protection of cultural heritage objects managed to conduct large-scale emergency excavations of urban necropolises, which consistently functioned from the foundation of the Krasnoyarsk prison in 1628 until the beginning of the XX century.

Information obtained as a result of excavations of the Pokrovsky (Tarasov, 2002), Vsekhsvyatsky (Tarasov, 2011), and Voskresensky (Muratov, 2007; Makarov, 2008; Grevtsov, 2009) burial complexes allowed us to construct the following order of their formation and functioning:

at the Intercession Church - 30-40 years. XVII-the last quarter of the XVIII century.;

at Preobrazhenskaya - XVII century.;

pri Vsekhsvyatskaya - 1773 - the middle of the XIX century.;

at the Resurrection Cathedral - the last quarter of the XVIII-20s of the XX century.

The materials of rescue excavations and exploratory works on the territory of the" small town " of the Krasnoyarsk prison suggest that it was possible to record the burials of Russian settlers buried inside the fortress during the first two or three decades of the city's existence in the churchyard of the first Krasnoyarsk church-the Transfiguration Church (Fig. 1).

Pokrovsky Necropolis. It was laid on the territory of the "big city" of the Krasnoyarsk prison on the high yar of the left bank of the Yenisei (now the intersection of K. Marx Street and 9 January Street) at the end of the XVII century. It was located in the south-western corner of the posad, protected by the tyn (construction began in 1659) with two defensive towers - Pokrovskaya and Alekseevskaya (built in 1682), as well as a moat (construction began in 1667).

During the rescue archaeological work, the south-western, most recent sector of the necropolis was investigated. On an area of 220 m2, 327 burials were found in wooden coffins and blocks of trapezoid, rectangular and diamond shape, fastened with nails and staples. The facts of consecutive burial of remains in one grave pit were revealed (up to five tiers of overlapping burials were recorded). The total area of the necropolis determined by exploration is about 4,500 m2 (Tarasov, 2002).

Resurrection and Transfiguration Necropolis. In 1759, the Resurrection Cathedral was founded in Ostrog (completed in 1773), at the walls of which representatives of the clergy and honorary citizens of the city were buried.

1. A modern plan of the city of Krasnoyarsk with the designation of historical necropolises.

1-Preobrazhensky (1628 and later); 2-Pokrovsky (1630-1640-the end of the XVIII century); 3-Vsekhsvyatsky (1773-the middle of the XIX century); 4-Voskresensky (the last quarter of the XVIII-20s of the XX century); 5-Troitsky (1835-present time).

page 141
As a city cemetery, the necropolis existed until the 1920s. It is obvious that the cathedral was built on the site (or in close proximity to it) of the wooden Transfiguration Church located in the fortress, which was supposed to have its own churchyard. However, the presence of the necropolis is not reflected in any known plan of the city of that period (however, like the territory of the Pokrovsky Necropolis).

The development of the Yenisei and Kacha rivers ' arrow led to the loss of micro - and macro-relief features (location of brow terraces, floodplain borders, etc.), and caused significant damage to cultural layers. The demolition in the mid-1960s of the Resurrection Cathedral, which was the only reference point for linking the relative location of the structures of the "big" and" small " cities, significantly complicated the work on further study of the prison and identification of the necropolis territory.

In 1958, in connection with the construction of the Youth Palace on the arrow of the Yenisei and Kacha rivers, emergency excavations were conducted under the direction of I. B. Nikolaeva, which, according to her, were of an emergency nature. This was the first experience of archaeological study of the territory of Ostrog. During the excavations, a large number of burials (ground graves and brick crypts) were found undisturbed and destroyed by construction (Nikolaeva, 1963, p. 115, 120). An analysis of the available archival materials allows us to conclude that the Resurrection Necropolis sector, located to the north of the cathedral and occupied by the burials of the urban elite of the late XVIII - early XIX centuries, was destroyed by the foundation pit of the never-built Youth Palace.

The necropolis was repeatedly disturbed in 1980-1981 during the construction of the concert hall, during the reconstruction of which emergency excavations of the north - western sector were carried out in 2007-2008 (Muratov, 2007; Makarov, 2008; Grevtsov, 2009). In the pit formed after the dismantling of the main porch of the concert hall on an area of approx. 450 m2, 157 burials (both undisturbed and destroyed) were found in wooden coffins and rectangular and trapezoidal decks fastened with nails. Up to four tiers of overlapping burial structures have been recorded (Makarov, 2008). In 2008, during the expansion of the western part of the pit, 26 more burials were additionally investigated (Grevtsov, 2009).

Currently, the total area of distribution of burials (consisting, obviously, of overlapping burials of the Preobrazhensky and Voskresensky necropolises) is about 5000 m2. Materials obtained in 2007 and 2008, we have conventionally designated as the Resurrection-Preobrazhensky necropolis of the XVII-20s of the XX century.

Materials

Bone materials obtained during the excavations of the Pokrovsky and Voskresensk-Preobrazhensky necropolises are kept in the Department of Paleoanthropology of the Institute of Health Culture and Sports Medicine of the Krasnoyarsk State Medical University. A total of 509 skeletons of adults and children who lived in Krasnoyarsk in the XVII-20s of the XX century were examined.

Series c of the Pokrovsky Necropolis consists of 3,27 skeletons - 123 adults (61 male, 61 female, the sex of one buried person is not determined) and 204 children and adolescents. The series from the Resurrection-Preobrazhensky necropolis contains 182 skeletons, of which 101 belonged to adults (59 - men, 38 - women, the gender of the four buried is not established), and 81-to children and adolescents. Distribution of age groups (especially in the first series) it indicates an unnaturally large proportion of children and adolescents.

Methods

57 signs of sexual dimorphism associated with elements of the relief of long tubular bones, skull, and pelvis were used to determine the sex of the buried [Reis, 2005, pp. 184-185]. The age was determined by the degree of eruption [Ubelaker, 1989, p. 44-95] and wear of teeth [Gerasimov, 1955, p. 121; Zubov, 1968, p. 173-174]; the degree of overgrowth of sutures on the skull [Alekseev and Debets, 1964, p. 36-38]; and symphysis [Dobryak, 1968, p. 36-38]. p. 142-147] and the auricular (Lovejoy et al., 1994) surfaces of the pelvic bones; the state of the sternal ends of the ribs (Iscan, Loth, and Wright, 1984); and the bones of the trunk and limbs (Andronescu, 1970, pp. 59-70; Pashkova and Reznikov, 1978, pp. 132-137).

The bones were examined macro -, microscopically, and radiologically. Pathological changes were described according to the methods developed by a number of authors [Aufderheide and Rodriguez-Martin, 2003; Ortner, 2003; Resnick and Kransdorf, 2005; Lewis, 2007; Brickley and Ives, 2008], and symptoms of joint diseases (spondyloarthritis and hyperostosis) were described according to the methods described in studies [Rogers et al., 1987; Crabezy and Crabezy-Ibanez, 1993; Weiss and Jurmain, 2007; Waldron, 2009].

According to our working definition, osteoarthritis was diagnosed in the presence of eburneation or at least two of the following symptoms: osteophytes on the articular surface, its "ulceration" (pitting), and changes in the joint configuration. Intervertebral disc disease was diagnosed in the presence of pitting.

page 142
or the upper surface of the vertebral bodies, or the marginal osteophyte (Waldron, 2009).

The level of mineralization (calcium and trace element content) and bone histostructure were studied using compacts of the right tibia of 50 men and 51 women buried at the Pokrovsky necropolis. The analysis was performed by the spectroemission method (Optima 3000 spectrometer, Perkins Elmer, USA). Histological sections were stained by the Schmorl method (thionine-picric acid staining) and examined using an optical microscope (Olympus BX45) at 10-, 40 - and 100-fold magnification. Average, standard deviations, and confidence coefficients were calculated. Statistical analysis included the use of the χ 2 criterion at a 5% significance level [Waldron, 2007].

Results

Children

A number of pathological changes were found on children's skeletons from Pokrovsky (202) and Voskresensk-Preobrazhensky (80) necropolises. Among non-specific indicators of stress, pronounced osteoporosis of the upper orbital wall (cribra orbitalia with clear edges of holes) was observed in children under 5 years of age (Pokrovskaya series - six cases, Voskresensk-Preobrazhenskaya - one), and less pronounced osteoporosis associated with bone rearrangement (cribra orbitalia with indistinct edges of holes) - in children 6 - 17 years old (Pokrovskaya group - four cases out of 38, Voskresensk-Preobrazhenskaya - 3 out of 31; p > 0.05). Harris lines were found in 41% (19/46) of 3-17 - year-olds buried in the Pokrovsky Necropolis, and in 46.8% (15/32) of children of the same age cohort buried in the Resurrection-Preobrazhensky Churchyard (p > 0.05). Macroscopic symptoms of rickets - thickening of the rib cartilage ("rickety beads") and one case of osteoporosis of the upper wall of the eye socket (Figure 2) - were detected on the bones of children aged 3 - 36 months-7.5% (6/80) and 4.1% (1/24), respectively (p > 0.05).

Injuries are quite rare. They were observed in 7.9% (3/38) of children over 5 years of age in the Pokrovskaya group (femoral fracture - 6 - 10 years, foot phalanx - 11 - 15 years, clavicle - 16 - 17 years) and 9.6% (3/31) - in the Voskresensk-Preobrazhenskaya group (tibial fracture-6-10 years, shoulder - 16-17, ankles - 16-17 years) (p > 0.05).

Symptoms of non-specific infections (periostitis and osteomyelitis) 2% of children's skeletons (4/202) were found from the Pokrovsky Necropolis and 3.7% (3/80) from the Voskresensk - Preobrazhensky Necropolis (the differences are unreliable). Specific infectious diseases are represented by two cases of congenital syphilis and four cases of tuberculosis. In a one-year-old child (Pokrovskaya group), multiple peripheral symmetrical bone growth was noted on many bones; periostitis and bone deformity suggest an early form of congenital syphilis [Ortner, 2003, p. 287-297] (Fig. 3). A 15-year-old child (Voskresensk-Preobrazhenskaya group) had an overgrowth of periosteal bone substance on the tibia, as well as the absence of upper incisors, probably indicating si syndrome-

2. KGMA 13-215 (child of 9 months). Osteoporosis of the upper orbital wall (cribra orbitalia).

3. KGMA 13-03 (a 12-month-old child). Periostitis of long tubular bones (an early form of congenital syphilis).

page 143

4. KGMA 13-245 (9-year-old child). Vertebrae (T10-L4 side view): lumbar kyphosis caused by the destruction of the L1 and L2 bodies; ankylosis of L1 and L2.

5. KGMA 15-172 (male 25 years old). Periostitis on the inner surface of the ribs.

phylitic lesion of the incisor rudiment (Nicolas, Gate, Cuilleret, 1941).

Tuberculosis symptoms-osteolytic lesions, spina ventosa, dactylitis, and periostitis-were observed in 1.5% of children's skeletons from Pokrovsky Necropolis (3/202, including one case of Pott's disease) (Fig. 4) and 1.2% (1/80) - from Voskresensk-Preobrazhensky (p > 0.05).

Adults

Infectious diseases. Tuberculosis lesions in adults were observed only in the Resurrection-Preobrazhensky Necropolis series - 2% (2/101). We are talking about the symptoms of Pott's disease: in one case it is ankylosis of the T12 and L1 vertebrae, in the other-costal-vertebral spondylosis (T8 and T9 vertebrae) with periostitis on the inner surface of the ribs (Fig. 5).

Syphilis was recorded in both groups in individuals aged 18 years and older: in Pokrovskaya-4.0% (5/123), in Voskresensk-Preobrazhenskaya-5.9% (6/101) (p > 0.05). Sex differences in both series are insignificant (p > 0.05). Syphilitic lesions are diverse and have different localization. The most frequent lesions are the lower leg (periostitis - 8 cases out of 11) and the skull (dry caries sicca - 5 cases out of 11; Fig. 6).

Injuries. Injuries and post-traumatic changes included fractures (Figure 7), including one case of infected injury, dislocations, pseudoarthrosis, exostosis, bruises, osteochondritis, spondylolysis, and injuries. They were observed in 28.4% (35/123) of adults in the Pokrovskaya group and in 42.5% (43/101) in the Voskresensk - Preobrazhenskaya group (p > 0.05). The distribution of the frequency of injuries by gender is as follows: men - 34.4% (21/61) in the Pokrovskaya series and 50.8% (30/59) in the Voskresensk-Preobrazhenskaya series (p > 0.05), women - 22.9% (14/61) and 34.2% (13/38), respectively

6. KGMA 13 - 244 (40-year-old female). Radial scars on the scales of the frontal bone.

7. KGMA 15-106 (male 30-35 years old). Clavicle (bottom view): healed fracture of the left clavicle (angular contour, shortening).

page 144
(p > 0,05). Gender differences in this indicator are unreliable (p > 0.05).

Traces of injuries are most common on the ribs. They were found on 12.9% (29/224) of all adult skeletons and on 37.1% (29/78) of damaged skeletons. Rib fractures were observed in 15.0% (18/120) of men and 11.1% (11/99) of women in both groups (p > 0.05). The incidence in each group is as follows: in Pokrovskaya - 11.4% (7/61) and 13.1% (5/38), respectively, in Voskresensk-Preobrazhenskaya-18.6% (11/59) and 9.8% (6/61) (p > 0.05).

The highest number of injuries of the upper extremities were found on the bones of the hand (eight cases) and forearm (two - on the elbow and four - on the radius), on the humerus (four); lower-on the femur (three fractures of the diaphysis and three - of the femoral neck), tibial (five) and metatarsal (three) bones. Their frequency is significantly higher in the Resurrection-Preobrazhenskaya group (36.6%; 37/101) than in the Pokrovskaya group (17.8%; 22/123) (p < 0.05). In the first case, upper limb injuries were recorded in 19.8% (20/101) of cases, in the second-in 8.1% (10/123) (p < 0.05). Gender differences do not reach the level of significance either within each series or when they are combined (p > 0.05).

A number of injuries could have been caused by violence. These are fractures of the diaphysis of the ulnar and radial bones (the so-called parry fracture), as well as the bones of the skull (frontal, nasal, upper jaw). The result of violence is also war injuries recorded in one man: two unhealed wounds on the frontal bone caused by chopping weapons; a wound in the orbital region caused by an arrowhead that was found in the skull cavity; a healed wound in the chest area (near the 7th and 8th right ribs there was a bone arrowhead 20 cm long, with healing marks found on the ribs).

Joint diseases. Joint lesions include proliferative osteoarthritis (Figure 8) and erosive spondyloarthropathy; cases of hyperostosis are combined to facilitate the perception of the results.

Osteoarthritis is the most common joint disease. Its symptoms were found in 39.8% of cases (49/123) in the Pokrovskaya group and in 46.5% (47/101) in the Voskresensk - Preobrazhenskaya group (p > 0.05). The most typical localization is the articular surfaces of vertebral bodies and processes. The frequency was 33.9% (76/224) of all adult skeletons and 79% (76/96) of skeletons with pathological changes. Vertebral osteoarthritis was registered in 40.8% (49/120) of men and 27.2% (27/99) of women in the two groups (p > 0.05). In both sexes, symptoms are most often seen in the lumbar vertebrae (p > 0.05).

Osteoarthritis of the joints of the extremities was more common in the Voskresensk-Preobrazhenskaya group - 30.6% (31/101) versus 13.8% (17/123) in the Pokrovskaya group (p < 0.05). Its symptoms were observed in 11.4% (7/61) of male skeletons in the Pokrovskaya group and 40.6% (24/59) in the Voskresensk - Preobrazhenskaya group (p < 0.05). Upper limb osteoarthritis was observed in 9.8% (6/61) of men in the Pokrovskaya group and in 33.9% (20/59) in the Voskresensk-Preobrazhenskaya group (p < 0.05). Other differences between groups and between the sexes do not reach the level of significance.

Symptoms of spondyloarthritis were observed in two skeletons of men aged 30 to 40 years: in one case, psoriatic arthritis, in the other, ankylosing spondyloarthritis (Figure 9). Forestier's disease (diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis) was found in four men and one woman of the same age.

Congenital anomalies, nonmetric variations, and malformations. Various abnormalities were found in adults in both groups. The most common spinal anomalies are: occipitalization of the Atlas (one case), absence of synostosis

Figure 8. KGMA 15-041 (male 40-50 years old). Osteophytes on the epiphysis of the femur, eburneation of the lateral condyles.

9. KGMA 15-123 (male 30-40 years old). Spine (front view): ankylosing spondylitis (ankylosing spondylitis).

page 145
between its parts (spina bifida atlantis, one case) [Scheuer and Black, 2000, p. 199], absence of a tooth of the second cervical vertebra (os odontoideum, one case), sacralization of L5 and Co1 (three cases each), split of the sacrum (spina bifida occulta) and spinous process of the fifth lumbar vertebra (one case), fusion of C2 and C3 (Klippel-Feil syndrome?), L2 and L3 (one case). Two skeletons showed perforation of the sternum (Barnes, 1994, p. 35).

A case of os acromiale (in combination with spina bifida atlantis, see above) was identified. One skeleton shows an additional bone synostosed with the second metatarsal, and a bifurcation of the fifth metatarsal in the form of a bone spike extending from its distal end [Case, Ossenberg, Burnett, 1998; Keats and Anderson, 2007, p. 946, 954]. One buried person was found to have a triangular deformity of the upper jaw in combination with the absence of teeth (dental agenesis) and deformity of the pear - shaped opening-possibly symptoms of maxillofacial dysostosis [Maroteaux and LeMerrer, 2002, p. 252].

Histological and chemical analysis of bone matter. The results of the study showed that the degree of bone mineralization in the female population of Krasnoyarsk in the XVII-XVIII centuries was significantly lower than in the male population. This can be explained by the use of calcium in the female body for the formation of the fetal skeleton. As you know,

Indicators of mineralization, microelement composition and histological structure of skeletons of men and women in Krasnoyarsk of the XVII-XVIII centuries.

Indicators

Men (N = 50), M ± m

Women (N = 51), M± t

Confidence, p

Calcium, g

35,06 ±0,11

33,45 ±0,165

<0,05

Microelement composition, 1 10-3 g

Aluminum

34,45 ±0,15

36,63 ±0,112

<0,05

Cadmium

2,08 ± 0,09

2,33 ±0,121

>0,05

Silicon

10,3 ±0,23

16,60 ±0,449

< 0,01

Manganese

4,03 ±0,13

9,85 ± 0,326

< 0,001

Copper

6,07 ± 0,22

3,94 ± 0,554

< 0,01

Lead

1,37 ±0,18

1,38 ±0,183

>0,05

Strontium

19,9 ±0,21

32,50 ± 0,589

< 0,01

Zinc

30,8 ± 0,20

34,40 ± 0,590

<0,05

Fluoride

225,0 ±2,15

190,00 ±2,800

<0,05

Histological structures

Diameter of osteons, microns

145,23 ±1,68

165,77 ±0,91

<0,05

Diameter of haversovyh channels, microns

40,22 ± 0,43

52,06 ± 0,77

<0,05

Wall thickness of osteons, microns

101,80 ±0,59

113,71 ±0,43

<0,05

Density of osteon placement in the field of view at magnification of 7 x 8 x 1.5

28,06 ± 0,34

23,05 ± 0,30

<0,05

10. Histological structure of the tibial diaphysis in men (a) and women (b). 1-osteons; 2-osteon wall; 3-Haversov canal (Schmorl staining, x40 magnification).

page 146
women of that time often gave birth [Gorod..., 1981, p. 93]. At the same time, an increased content of most trace elements (strontium, zinc, manganese, cadmium, silicon and aluminum) was detected in female bones, which is associated with their accumulation during pregnancy, since all of them are osteoforming in their function. The increased content of manganese in female skeletons, according to M. V. Kozlovskaya (1988, pp. 86-93), can also be the reason for a decrease in the level of their mineralization.

The study of the histological structure of the tibia showed that in women they have large thick-walled, rarely located osteonic structures, which, according to the data of E. N. Khrisanfova [1978], are "strong" in biomechanical terms (see Table, Fig. 10). Obviously, the decrease in the level of mineralization of female skeletons is compensated by a change in the structural organization of bone tissue, which allows maintaining its density.

Discussion

The number of publications on the paleopathology of Siberia is small [Stepanov, 1835, p. 186; Krutovsky, 1896, p. 4; Gorod..., 1981, p. 127; Buzhilova, 2002; Myglan and Vaganov, 2005]. The study of skeletal series related to the time of foundation and subsequent periods of development of Krasnoyarsk makes it possible to assess the health status of its residents, as well as the causes of their morbidity and mortality.

Infectious diseases have played a very important role in human history and in the evolution of human populations. They evolved and took on new forms. For centuries, during the era of geographical discovery, conquest and colonization, favorable conditions were created for the spread of pathogenic factors and the emergence of infectious diseases. Infections accompanied settlers, travelers, and colonists who introduced pathogens to the new environment. This situation became particularly acute after the beginning of the European conquest of the New World in the early 16th century [Cook and Lovell, 1992; Cook, 1998; The Cambridge world history..., 1999, p. 519, 535].

The development of Siberia was also accompanied by the spread of infections [Forsyth, 1992, p. 57-59; Naumov, 2006, p. 130-139]. In the 17th century. The population of Europe suffered from many infectious diseases (plague, smallpox, cholera, dysentery, typhoid, influenza, leprosy, tuberculosis, syphilis, etc.), which developed either endemically or as epidemics [The Cambridge world history..., 1999, p. 284-285, 1008-1013; Hopkins, 2002, p. 34-35, 65-66; Encyclopedia..., 2008, p. 22, 334, 386]. In this respect, the situation during the development of Siberia (late 16th - early 17th centuries) east of the Ural Mountains is insufficiently reflected in both historical documents and paleopathological studies (Mednikova, 1999; Myglan and Vaganov, 2005). The Russian advance to the east had consequences similar to those observed during the conquest of the New World. It was accompanied by outbreaks of smallpox, measles, influenza, typhus, leprosy and other diseases. Once in a new environment, pathogenic microorganisms caused new diseases that joined those that existed before colonization [Forsyth, 1992, p. 57 - 59, 158 - 163].

Smallpox, the deadliest disease in human history, accompanied all colonizations (Hopkins, 2002). It apparently did not exist in Siberia before the arrival of the Russians. According to V. S. Myglan and E. A. Vaganov (2005), smallpox epidemics were observed in Narym uyezd in 1610 and in Tomsk uyezd in 1630-1634. According to other authors, the first epidemic was recorded in Western Siberia in 1630-1631, and the disease reached Central Siberia in 20 years [Forsyth, 1992, p. 57-59; Hopkins, 2002, p. 34]. In the subsequent periods of development of Siberia, smallpox epidemics affected different parts of it. The disease was introduced by colonists, and then it spread among the local population (Myglan and Vaganov, 2005). Smallpox did not spare anyone - neither aborigines nor migrants. In the XVII-XIX centuries. it was the most common infectious disease in Siberia. Vaccinations against smallpox in the form of inoculation ("variolation") began to be carried out at the Russian court in the second half of the XVIII century, and vaccination became widespread in the XIX century [Hopkins, 2002, p. 56].

There is a mention of smallpox in the Yenisei basin (between Yenisei and Krasnoyarsk) in the 60s of the XVII century. This suggests that it did not spare the inhabitants of the Krasnoyarsk prison, and then the city of Krasnoyarsk [Gorod..., 1981, p. 127; Myglan and Vaganov, 2005]. It is impossible to judge smallpox from the bones, since it only rarely leaves traces on them, such as osteomyelitis variolosa in children [Cockshott and MacGregor, 1958, p. 369].

Syphilis is another disease associated with colonization and urbanization. Historical sources contain references to syphilis in Northern Europe from the late 15th to early 16th centuries [Quetel, 1986; Dutour et al., 1994; The Cambridge world history..., 1999, p. 1025-1033]. Syphilitic lesions were observed on bone materials from the early 16th century from Eastern Europe and the mid-16th century from European Russia (Jankauskas, 1994, p. 237; Marcsik, 1994, p. 233; Buzhilova, 1999, p.271). In the questionnaires of 1735-1738 compiled by G. F. Miller and V. N. Tatishchev, syphilis along with

page 147
with smallpox, jaundice and measles, it is listed in the list of diseases affecting residents of Krasnoyarsk [Gorod..., 1981, p. 127]. V. M. Krutovsky at the congress of syphilidologists in 1896 stated:"...it is necessary to recognize the fact of a significant spread of syphilis among the local population " [1896, p. 4].

Syphilis symptoms were found in both Krasnoyarsk series. They were observed more frequently in women than in men. Symptoms of the third stage of the disease are very diverse in their manifestations and localization (no wonder syphilis is called a "simulator" disease). However, the most common lesions were the skull and tibia. Two cases (early and late forms) of congenital syphilis indicate that the disease was sexually transmitted [Lewis, 2007, p. 151-159]. Syphilis is one of the diseases that massively spread to the east along with migrants. Among the Siberian aborigines at the end of the XIX century. This was one of the social diseases along with alcoholism [Forsyth, 1992, p. 161; Naumov, 2006, p. 139].

Tuberculosis - the "white plague" and "silent killer" - occurs due to crowding and poverty [Bates, Stead, 1993; Dubos R., Dubos J., 1996; The Cambridge world history..., 1999, p. 1059]. Two factors contribute to its spread: 1) changes in living conditions leading to reactivation of latent tuberculosis infection; 2) the appearance in the population of an adult with an open chronic form of pulmonary disease, infecting both young individuals (primary contact with the infection and primary disease) and adults (repeated contact and re-infection) [Wallgren, 1938; Sharma et al., 2005]. The disease manifests itself in an acute form in children and in a chronic form in adults. Vertebral lesions (Pott's disease) allow you to recognize the disease. However, a different localization is also found in adults, and especially in children [Lewis, 2007, p. 146-151; Dabernat and Crabezy, 2010]. Bone lesions occur in less than 5% of cases of tuberculosis [Aufderheide and Rodriguez-Martin, 2003, p. 118; Ortner, 2003, p. 227]. Their frequency, therefore, does not reflect the prevalence of the disease.

The symptoms of tuberculosis and syphilis in both series from Krasnoyarsk indicate either that these diseases were endemic here, i.e. they existed even before colonization, or that they were introduced by colonists. The latter hypothesis seems the most plausible. Both infectious diseases seem to have spread when the population increased due to the influx of Russians to this region of Siberia (Naumov, 2006, p. 73).

In children, many deaths are not associated with bone damage. This is the case with the most common bacterial and viral infectious diseases, with non-specific respiratory and gastrointestinal infections, and with some other diseases such as smallpox, measles, influenza, diphtheria and dysentery. Periodic famine has contributed to high mortality rates in infants (under one year old) and young children (under five years old). Weaning is also a critical period. Non-specific markers of stress, such as upper orbital wall osteoporosis (cribra orbitalia) and Harris lines, occur with varying frequency, which illustrates the "osteological paradox" [Wood et al., 1992, p. 343]. Cases of rickets are rare. Vitamin D deficiency is attributed to the scarcity of ultraviolet radiation combined with the need for blind clothing to protect against the cold. In children, this problem may have been compounded by a lack of this vitamin in the mother's body [Brickley and Ives, 2008, p. 75].

In both series from Krasnoyarsk, a wide variety of bone lesions were found that are natural for individuals of the appropriate age. Combat injuries are rare , with only one fatal arrow wound to the face recorded. Meanwhile, the historical literature mentions multiple episodes of conflicts between the inhabitants of Ostrog and the aborigines (Kyrgyz) [Bakhrushin, 1959, p. 64-66; Gorod..., 1981, p. 5].

Conclusion

None of the studied series can be considered representative. In both cases, rescue excavations were carried out for sections of necropolises destroyed by new construction. Analysis of the age distribution of individuals in the groups revealed a significant predominance of children under one year of age. In general, the results of studying the paleoanthropological materials of two necropolises in Krasnoyarsk (Pokrovsky and Voskresensk-Preobrazhensky) give the first idea of the state of health of the population of this part of Siberia in the XVII-early XX centuries and open the way for other studies and interesting comparisons.

List of literature

Alekseev V. P., Debets G. F. Craniometry: Methodology of anthropological research, Moscow: Nauka Publ., 1964, 128 p.

Andronescu A. Anatomiya rebenka [Anatomy of a child]. Bucharest: Meridian Publ., 1970, 363 p.

Bakhrushin S. V. Scientific works-Moscow: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1959. - Vol. IV: Essays on the history of the Krasnoyarsk region in the XVII century. Siberia and Central Asia in the XVI-XVII centuries. - 258 p .

Gerasimov M. M. Restoration of the face from the skull (modern and fossil man). - M.; L.: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1955. - 585 p.- (TEE; vol. 28).

page 148
Gorod u Krasny Yar: Dokumenty i materialy po istorii Krasnoyarska XVII-XVIII vv [The city near the Red Yar: Documents and materials on the history of Krasnoyarsk in the 17th-18th centuries]. Krasnoyarsk: Kn. izd-vo, 1981, 280 p. (in Russian)

Grevtsov Yu. A. Report on the results of archaeological research in Krasnoyarsk in 2008. Krasnoyarsk, 2009. Vol. 1 / / Archive of the Department of protection of cultural heritage objects of the Ministry of Culture of the Krasnoyarsk Territory. B / n 232 p.

Dobryak V. I. Age-related features of the pubic symphysis // Questions of anthropology. 1968, issue 29, pp. 140-147.

Zubov A. A. Odontology (methodology of anthropological research). Moscow: Nauka Publ., 1968, 200 p. (in Russian)

Kozlovskaya M. V. Influence of individual factors on the variability of the mineral component of bone tissue // Questions of anthropology. - 1988. - Issue 80. - p. 86-93.

Kopylov A. N. Russians on the Yenisei in the XVII century (agriculture, industry and trade relations of the Yenisei uyezd). Novosibirsk: SB of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1965, 297 p.

Krutovsky V. M. To materials on the issue of the spread of syphilis and venereal diseases in Krasnoyarsk, Yenisei province: Report of doctor V. M. Krutovsky to the Congress of syphilidologists in St. Petersburg in 1896. Krasnoyarsk: A. D. Zhilin Publishing House, 1896, 43 p. (in Russian)

Makarov N. P. Report on emergency rescue archaeological excavations of the objects of archaeological heritage "Resurrection Necropolis" and "Krasnoyarsk prison", revealed during the reconstruction of the main entrance to the building of the state cultural Institution "Krasnoyarsk Regional Philharmonic" (Krasnoyarsk, Mira ave., 26). Krasnoyarsk, 2008. Vol. 1 / / Archive of the Department of protection of cultural heritage objects of the Ministry of Culture of the Krasnoyarsk Territory. B / n 61 p.

Medvedeva N. N., Tarasov A. Yu., Reis T. M., Nikolaev V. G. Dinamika istoricheskogo i antropologicheskogo oblika naseleniya Vostochnoy Sibiri (na primere g. Krasnoyarsk) [Dynamics of the historical and anthropological appearance of the population of Eastern Siberia (on the example of Krasnoyarsk)]. - 2004. - N 2. - p. 126-133.

Muratov E. S. Report on preliminary archaeological surveys of the south-eastern part of the intersection of Karl Marx - 9 January streets and the site of the Resurrection Necropolis near the building of the Grand Concert Hall (26 Mira Ave.) in the Central district of Krasnoyarsk, Krasnoyarsk Territory, conducted in 2007. Krasnoyarsk, 2007 / / Archive of the Department of protection of cultural heritage objects of the Ministry of Culture of the Krasnoyarsk Territory. B / n 91 p.

Myglan V. S., Vaganov E. And Epidemics and epizootics in Siberia in the XVII-first half of the XIX century and long-term climate changes / / Archeology, Ethnography and Anthropology of Eurasia. - 2005. - N 4. - p. 136-144.

Nikolaeva N. B. [Excavations on the territory of the former Krasnoyarsk prison]. Materialy i issledovaniya po arkheologii, etnografii i istorii Krasnoyarskogo kraya [Materials and research on archeology, ethnography and history of the Krasnoyarsk Territory]. Krasnoyarsk: Kn. izd-vo, 1963, pp. 115-121.

Pashkova V. I., Reznikov B. V. Forensic identification of a person by bone remains. - Saratov: Sarat State University Publishing House, 1978. - 320 p.

Reis T. M. Program for assessing sexual dimorphism based on human skeletal remains // Aktual'nye problemy morfologii: sb. nauch. trudy [Actual problems of morphology]. akad., 2005, pp. 183-187.

Reis T. M. Pervoe naselenie goroda Krasnoyarskom po istoricheskim i kraniologicheskim dannym [The first population of the city of Krasnoyarsk based on historical and craniological data]. VIII Kongr. etnografov i antropologov Rossii: tez. dokl. - Orenburg, 2009, p.160.

Stepanov A. N. Yenisei province. - St. Petersburg: [Tip. Konrad Wingeberg], 1835. - Part I.-278 p.

Tarasov A. Y. Report on the excavation of the Pokrovsky necropolis of the Krasnoyarsk prison. Krasnoyarsk, 2002. Vol. 1 / / Archive of the Department of protection of cultural heritage objects of the Ministry of Culture of the Krasnoyarsk Territory. N 82. 126 p.

Tarasov A. Y. Archaeological study of historical necropolises of Krasnoyarsk // Tr. III (XIX) Everything is clear. archeol. the congress. - SPb.; M.; Veliky Novgorod, 2011. - T. P.-Pp. 262-263.

Khrisanfova E. N. Paleomorphology and formation of the postcranial skeleton (body skeleton and long limb bones) for hominid taxonomy, Moscow: Moscow State University Press, 1978, 221 p.

Aufderheide A. C., Rodriguez-Martin C. The Cambridge encyclopedia of human paleopathology. - Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003. - 478 p.

Barnes E. Developmental defects of the axial skeleton in paleopathology. - Niwot: Univ. Press Colorado, 1994. - 360 p.

Bates J.H., Stead W.W. The history of tuberculosis as a global epidemic //Medical Climes of North America. - 1993. - Vol. 3,N77. - P 1205 - 1217.

Brickley M., Ives R. The bioarchaeology of metabolic bone disease. - L.: Academic Press, 2008. - 333 p.

Buzhilova A. Medieval example of syphilis from European Russia // Intern. J. of Osteoarchaeology. - 1999. - Vol. 9, N 5. - P. 271 - 276. - Doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099 - 1212(199909/ 10)9:5<271::AID-OA496>3.0.CO;2-E

Buzhilova A. The geography of leprosy in the Russian Empire: historical evidence for the dissemination of the disease // Roberts A., Lewis M.E., Manchester K. The past and present of leprosy, archaeological, historical, palaeopathological and clinical approaches. - Oxford: Archaeopress, 2002. - P. 123 - 133.

Case D.T., Ossenberg N.S., Burnett S.E. Os intermetatarseum: a heritable accessory bone of the human foot // Am. J. of Physical Anthropology. - 1998. - Vol. 107, N 2. - P. 199 - 209. - Doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096 - 8644(199810)107:2<199:: AID-AJPA6>3.0.CO;2-Q

Cockshott P., MacGregor M. Osteomyelitis variolosa // Quarterly J. of Medicine. - 1958. - Vol. 27, N 3. - P. 369 - 387.

Cook N.D. Born to die, disease and New World conquest, 1492 - 1650. - Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1998. - 248 p.

Cook N.D., Lovell W.G. "Secret judgments of God": Old world disease in colonial Spanish America. - Norman: Univ. Oklahoma Press, 1992. - 285 p.

Crubezy E., Crubezy-Ibanez E. Evaluation of diagnostic criteria for diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis in a series of skeletons: Epidemiological implications // Revue du Rhumatisme et des maladies Osteoarticulaires. - 1993. - Vol. 9, N60. - P. 489-493.

Dabernat H., Crubezy E. Multiple bone tuberculosis in a child from predynastic Upper Egypt (3200 ВС) // Intern. J. of Osteoarchaeology. - 2010. - Vol. 20, N 6. - P. 719 - 730. - Doi: 10.1002/oa.1082

Dubos R., Dubos J. The white plague, tuberculosis, man, and society. - New Brunswick (NJ): Rutgers Univ. Press, 1996. - 277 p.

page 149
Dutour O., Palfi G., Berato J., Brun J.P. The origin of syphilis in Europe, before or after 1493? - P.: Errance, 1994. - 320 p.

Encyclopedia of plague and pestilence: from ancient times to the present / ed. by G.C. Kohn. - N. Y: Facts on File, 2008. - 529 p.

Forsyth J. A history of the peoples of Siberia: Russia'north Asian colony 1581 - 1990. - Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992. - 455 p.

Hopkins D.R. The greatest killer: smallpox in history. - Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 2002. - 380 p.

Iscan M.Y., Loth S.R., Wright R.K. Metamorphosis at the sternal rib end: a new method to estimate age at death in white males //Am. J. of Physical Anthropology. - 1984. - Vol. 65, N2. - P. 147 - 156. - Doi: 10.1002/ajpa. 1330650206

Jankauskas R. Syphilis in Eastern Europe: historical and paleopathological evidences // Dutour O., Palfi G., Berato J., Brun J.P. The origin of syphilis inEurope, before or after 1493? - P.: Errance, 1994. - P. 237 - 239.

Keats T. E., Anderson M. W. Atlas of normal roentgen variants that may simulate disease. - Philadelphia (PA): Mosby Elsevier, 2007. - 1321 p.

Lewis M.C. The bioarchaeology of children: perspectives from biological and forensic anthropology. - Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2007. - 255 p.

Lovejoy C.O., Meindl R.S., Ryzbek T.R., Mensforth R.P. Standards for data collection from Human skeletal Remains // Arkansas Archeological Survey Research series. - 1994. - N44. - P. 25 - 32.

Marcsik A. Data to the epidemiology of syphilis in ancient populations in Central Europe // Dutour O., Palfi G., Berato J., Brun J.P. The origin of syphilis inEurope, before or after 1493? - P.: Errance, 1994. - P. 233 - 236.

Maroteaux P., Le Merrer M. Maladies osseuses de l'enfant. - P.: Flammarion, 2002. - 682 p.

Mednikova M. Pathological changes on two female radial bones of the early Iron Age from Southern Siberia // Intern. J. of Osteoarchaeology. - 1999. - Vol. 9, N 5. - P. 379 - 382. - Doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099 - 1212(199909/10)9:5<379::AID-OA479>3.0.CO;2-Z

Naumov I. V. The history of Siberia / ed. by D.N. Collins. - L.: Routledge, 2006. - 242 p.

Nicolas J., Gate J., Cuilleret P. Etude clinique de la syphilis congenitale // Encyclopedie Medico-Chirurgicale. - P.: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1941. - Vol. 3. - P. 1 - 12.

Ortner D.J. Identification of pathological conditions in human skeletal remains. - L.: Academic Press, 2003. - 645 p.

Quetel C. Le mal de Naples, histoire de la Syphilis. - P.: Seghers, 1986. - 348 p.

Resnick D., Kransdorf M. J. Bone and joint imaging. - Philadelphia: Elsevier, 2005. - 1522 p.

Rogers J., Waldron T., Dieppe P., Watt L. Arthropathies in paleopathology: the basis of classification according to most probable cause//J. of Archaeological Science. - 1987. - Vol. 14, N2. - P. 179 - 193. - Doi:10.1016/0305 - 4403(87)90005 - 7

Scheuer L., Black S. Developmental juvenile osteology. - San Diego: Academic Press, 2000. - 587 p.

Sharma S.K, Mohan A., Sharma A., Mitra D.K. Mliary tuberculosis: new insights into an old disease // Lancet Infectious Diseases. - 2005. - Vol. 5, July. - P. 415-430.

The Cambridge world history of human disease / K.F. Kiple. - Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press, 1999. - 1176 p.

Ubelaker D.H. Human skeletal remains: excavation, analysis, interpretation. - Washington, DC: Taraxacum, 1989. - 172 p.

Waldron T. Palaeoepidemiology, the measure of disease in the human past. - Walnut Creek CA: Left Coast Press, 2007. - 148 p.

Waldron T. Paleopathology. - Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2009. - 279 p.

Wallgren A. Pulmonary tuberculosis, relation of childhood infection to the disease in adults // Lancet. - 1938. - Feb. 19. - P. 417-420.

Weiss E., Jurmain R. Osteoarthritis revisited: a contemporary review of aetiology //Intern. J. of Osteoarchaeology. - 2007. - Vol. 17,N5. - P. 437-^50. - Doi: 10.1002/oa.889

Wood J.W., Milner G.R., Harpending K.C., Weiss K.M. The osteological paradox, problems of inferring prehistoric health from skeletal samples // Current anthropology. - 1992. - Vol. 33, N4. - P. 343 - 370.

The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 28.03.12, in the final version-on 28.03.12.

page 150

Permanent link to this publication: