The conference "East: Challenges of the XXI Century" was held at the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences on October 20-22, 2008. It was organized by the Department of Comparative and Theoretical Research of the Institute of Internal Affairs of the Russian Academy of Sciences. About 60 people took part in its work: employees of the Department, the Center for Arab Studies, the Center for Indian Studies, the Department of Economic Research, the Israel Department of the Russian Academy of Sciences, employees of the Federation Council of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, the Institute of Africa of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Institute of the Middle East, the Military University of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, other scientific and educational institutions, as well as Director of the UN Information Center in Moscow A. S. Gorelik, representatives of the Arabic edition of Radio Moscow.

The conference was held in two sections: "Political Science, history, problems of religion" and "Economic and social problems". The conference participants focused on two blocks of problems. The first is the political challenges that the countries of the East have to face, and the problems facing the world community in connection with the situation in certain regions of the East. These include political Islam, international terrorism, the Middle East conflict and the situation in Arab countries, conflicts in the Indian Ocean zone, problems of unrecognized states, and interfaith relations. The second block is the challenges that the countries of the East (and not only them) have to face in the economic sphere: the food crisis and food security, the energy problem and those global problems that will face the countries of the East in the future due to the increase in the population and taking into account the limited fuel and energy and natural resources for food production.

The conference was opened by the head of the department. A. B. Podtserob, Department of Comparative Theoretical Research of the Institute of Applied Mathematics of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The opening speech was made by the Deputy Chairman of the Board of Directors. Director of the Institute of Information Technology of the Russian Academy of Sciences V. A. Isaev, who said: "In the new, 21st century, the countries of the East face a variety of challenges. The last of them is the global financial crisis, which will be discussed at this conference. At the same time, political issues such as the Middle East conflict or, for example, the question of how fast economic and political changes are taking place in the world do not go to the periphery of attention. In the twenty-first century, not only the economic, but also the political importance of such countries as China, India, and Russia has noticeably increased."

The first report "Islamism in Central Asia and Russia" was delivered by R. G. Landa (Institute of Islamic Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences) at the plenary session of the conference.. He noted that modern Islamism is a certain stage in the development of the world of Islam, which not only covers the sphere of national consciousness, but also expresses the desire to confirm its historical and civilizational identity and religious specifics, to protect its traditions and customs, the originality of its social life and everyday life, which is threatened by the expansion of non-Believers, once called crusades campaigns, then-the era of colonialism, and now-globalization.

R. G. Landa stressed that it is completely unjustified to equate Islamic fundamentalism with extremism. Fundamentalism is an ideological and cultural phenomenon, an attempt to "express the uniqueness of Islamic civilization" and a form of "self-affirmation of Islam as a socio-cultural system". The main strength of fundamentalism lies in the silent majority of its supporters. "Moderate" Islamists do not accept extremes and are ready to defend their ideas by peaceful means. Together with those who are generally alien to fundamentalism, they certainly dominate the world of Islam. But the radicals are trying to win them over to their side. And without understanding this, it is impossible to isolate extremists in any Muslim society.

Islam has always been no stranger to politics. Modern Islamic fundamentalism is already the third wave of the rise of the world of Islam in the last 150 years. R. G. Landa noted that Islam in Central Asian countries filled (only partially) the ideological vacuum after the collapse of communism and became a weapon in the political struggle, and quite dangerous. It should have been at least 6-7 years after the collapse of the USSR, during which its negative consequences were clearly marked, for the mentality and scientific developments of Muslims in the post-Soviet space to reappear, along with the weakening of the previously dominant particularist-sepa-

There is a strong sense of separatist tendencies, a desire for unity with Russia, and an understanding of the peculiarities of the "society of common destiny" that has developed over the centuries, but above all in the Soviet era, during the development of which there was a multifaceted interaction of two religious communities, and not just their parallel coexistence.

Z. I. Levin (IB RAS) delivered a report on "Innovations and traditions in the dynamics of Modernization of Eastern Societies"at the plenary session. He concluded that when modernization occurs fragmentally, i.e. when the society seriously violates the correspondence between its structure, functioning and the set of regulators of intra-system processes, including the state of public consciousness (legal institutions, traditions, spiritual culture), as it happens in the case of forced, not conditioned by the imperatives of spontaneous development of modernization in the countries of the East, there is an alienation in society, even resistance to innovation. And only after the society realizes the benefits of innovations, they become organic for it, sometimes a new tradition. In other words, comprehensive modernization is possible only when there is a relative correspondence between the components of the social triad "structure-functionality of society - a set of regulators of intra-system processes".

E. Y. Satanovsky, President of the Institute for the Middle East, delivered a report on "Changing Systems of Government in the Middle East and the external World" at the plenary session, opening the discussion of the Middle East block of problems. He briefly described the main forms of government in the Middle East - monarchies, more or less modernized or conservative, authoritarian regimes. "Hereditary democracy" has also become widespread in the Middle East, when the post of president is inherited. Some CIS countries also tend to follow the same model.

According to E. Y. Satanovsky, the Middle East is a cauldron where there is a change of power in the conditions of crisis, economic, political, environmental. The system of Western values is being transferred to a ground that it does not correspond to. Any activity of Western countries in the Middle East bounces back. The response in those countries that seek to influence the Middle East can be very sharp and effective. In the metropolises that affect specific countries, the terrorist underground operates from these countries.

A. Z. Yegorin's report "The East in Russian Politics at the present stage" contained specific recommendations on the main directions of Russia's eastern policy in relation to the CIS countries, the Middle East, North Africa, and the Asia-Pacific region. He stressed that Russia should abandon excessive Westernization and at the same time not go to the other extreme - that is, not pin its hopes on the countries of the East. The main task of Russia's foreign policy in relations with the CIS countries is to coordinate joint actions, define economic, cultural, political, military and other "spaces". Kazakhstan should become the object of special attention of Russian policy here/in this region. Russia's policy in the Middle East and North Africa will reflect global changes and depend on a warming international climate. Pragmatism and mutually beneficial cooperation should be central to the new model of our policy in the Middle East. India, China and Japan play a significant role in Russia's Asian policy and economic development. Relations with these countries will undoubtedly be a priority in our Asian policy.

V. G. Rastiannikov (IB RAS) delivered a report on the Food problem in the Eastern countries at the plenary session. He stressed that the problem of food security in the Eastern countries and many other countries is one of the most acute in the new century. This problem became more extensive in the twenty-first century, but its foundations were formed in the middle of the twentieth century, and in some cases, for example, in China, at the beginning of the twentieth century, when the basic conditions that flourished in the twenty-first century began to take shape. All this is the result of the work of the" invisible mole " of history: by the end of the 20th century, there was a huge marginalization of economic activity in the agrosphere, a sharp decrease in the per capita rate of arable land, which is associated with the development of a disproportion, which is determined by the ever-growing gap between the amount of natural resources used in agriculture and the "explosion" of the middle of the last century. There is a reduction in the area of arable land per person: now this area per capita is reduced by-

It grows 0.037 ha in the Republic of Korea, 0.04 ha in Japan, 0.04 ha in Egypt, 0.07 ha in China, and 0.14 ha in India. Marginal farms (with an area of up to 1 ha) will take the main place as agricultural producers in less than a decade (by 2015). In other words, there is a rapid marginalization of the economy as such. The opportunities for extensive agricultural development in the largest Eastern countries are almost exhausted.

Labor productivity in industry is increasing sharply, while in agriculture it continues to stagnate. Hence the aggravation of problems as a result of increased tensions in the supply of marketable food. But agricultural overpopulation continues to increase, and pressure on natural resources is increasing. The gap between fast-growing industry and semi-stagnant agriculture is widening. Today, the problem of prices and competition is particularly important. In quite recent times, with an oil price of $ 120-140 per barrel. it has become profitable to process grain and other food crops into ethanol. The grain fund began to be divided into two parts, one of which (so far quite small) is used for the production of ethanol, and the other - for food consumption. The danger is that grain becomes a "dual-use" product, thereby creating more and more uncertainty in the reliability of providing food to a huge mass of people.

V. G. Rastiannikov's speech aroused the interest of the audience and became the subject of discussion, which continued at the sessions of the session on economic and social issues.

The session of the section "Political Science, History, problems of religion" was opened by A. B. Podtserob with the report "International terrorism - a new global threat". He elaborated on the history of the creation and activities of transnational Islamist organizations - the Muslim Brotherhood, the Islamic Liberation Party (IRP), Al-Qaeda, the World Jihad Front, and the Taliban. To date, there is no single global center from which terrorist actions can be coordinated. In the international arena, there are several independent organizations united by an ideological community. Transnational extremist groups have networks for recruiting fighters and transferring them to war zones, organizational, financial and technical infrastructures, and their own intelligence and counterintelligence. The largest of these groups is Al-Qaeda. The global nature of the terrorist threat requires the united efforts of the international community to combat it. But it is important not to limit ourselves to the fight against terrorism itself, but to pay due attention to eliminating the causes that give rise to this phenomenon - the gap in the levels of development between the North and the South, resolving regional conflicts, and building up the dialogue of civilizations.

A number of presentations were devoted to the analysis of global political issues. S. A. Vorobyov, a member of the Staff of the Federation Council of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation, delivered a report entitled "Globalization as a challenge to the Muslim world". A. I. Yakovlev (IB RAS) noted that the Arab world is ready to adopt technologies and material values from the West, but it resists the influence of European culture and rejects globalization. He again turns to his own civilizational baggage, which has nourished and will continue to nourish all spheres of existence of Eastern society.

Professor of the Military University of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, member of the Union of Military Islamic Scholars S. Nebrenchin presented the report "Global Challenges of Eurasia". Up to 80% of all world conflicts occur in Eurasia. At the same time, most of them are provoked from the outside. According to S. Nebrenchin, the greatest danger to Eurasian stability and security is posed by the actions of the United States and Great Britain, which seek to change the geopolitical configuration of state and political forces and establish control over continental resources, communications and key states of Eurasia. A "double game"is being played around China. In the plans of the Atlantic geostrategy, scenarios of inciting an Indo-Pakistani armed conflict remain (this was said before the tragic events in Mumbai).

A.V. Kiva (Institute of History of the Russian Academy of Sciences) in his report "The Countries of the East after the collapse of real Socialism and the collapse of the USSR" described the current situation of the Non-Aligned Movement, which has 119 member states and 15 other countries with observer status. He noted, in particular, that the national liberation movement, according to some authors, develops into such a form as terrorism, and smoothly "flows" into developed countries. There is some truth in this statement. But, perhaps, much more than that, the world has truly become indivisible, and the troubles of the former colonies will inevitably make themselves felt (and are already making themselves felt!) in the past-

in other metropolitan areas and developed countries in general. Therefore, if the "rich North" wants to maintain the current political and social stability, it must, on the one hand, turn its face to the "poor South", and on the other - seriously address the problem of integrating immigrants from the "South" into all structures of its society.

Other reports focused on regional issues that are becoming challenges.

Sergey Nikolaev (Russian Foreign Ministry) in his report "Central Asia - Challenges and threats to regional security" concluded that the solution to the problems of ensuring and strengthening regional security in Central Asia still largely depends on how the Afghan settlement process will develop. "Drug trafficking from Afghanistan" - the topic of the speech of the teacher of the Military University of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, O. In Kulakov.

M. Y. Roshchin (Institute of International Relations of the Russian Academy of Sciences) made a report "Problems of unrecognized States". Roshchin considered examples of such unrecognized states as Western Sahara (the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic); Somaliland (former British Somaliland); Tamil Eelam in northeastern Sri Lanka; and the Cook Islands of Bougainville and Cook, which proclaimed the Republic of the Northern Solomon Islands. The speaker raised the question of whether it is possible to develop a universal algorithm for solving the problems of self-determination of individual peoples and territories.

In her report "Conflicts in the Context of New Security aspects in the Indian Ocean zone", N. B. Lebedeva (Institute of Information Technology of the Russian Academy of Sciences) considered in detail the situation in the Horn of Africa (Somalia), including the problem of piracy. In Somalia, which occupies a very important geostrategic position, neither the coast nor the ports have been protected since 1991 under a weak and inefficient Government. This is why piracy and attacks on passing ships have become more frequent here. As a result, the sub-region ranked third in the number of such incidents after the Strait of Malacca and the coasts of South Asia.

The regions that were the subject of special attention at the conference were undoubtedly the Middle East and North Africa.

O. P. Bibikova (IV RAS) in her report "The influence of external factors on internal processes in the Arab world" analyzed the changes taking place in Arab countries. The labor emigration of men to neighboring oil-producing countries has led, for example, in Yemen, to important changes in public life (a decrease in the birth rate, an increase in the role of women in society, a decrease in the number of polygamous marriages, an improvement in the financial condition of the state due to an increase in financial transfers of emigrants, etc.)., including among women. Ideological changes are also taking place. The role of "moderate Islam", the desire to resist Islamic extremism, and establish interfaith dialogue is growing. King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia has called for dialogue between Muslims, Jews and Christians. The Mufti of the kingdom declared the importance of the" moderate path " in Islam and condemned the preachers of radicalism.

T. V. Nosenko (Institute of Internal Affairs of the Russian Academy of Sciences) in her report "The Palestinian-Israeli conflict: new trends in the approach to settlement" noted that the very idea of two states for two peoples may collapse due to the crisis of power that both the Israeli and Palestinian sides are experiencing. It is clear that Israel will seek to include large settlement blocs within its borders. There is growing resistance among settlers to any attempts by the authorities to stop the creation of illegal settlements. However, maintaining the status quo, which is favored by right-wing politicians, and the lack of dynamics in the two-State negotiation process will play against Israel. According to some estimates, in five to six years, Arabs will make up at least 40% of the population in the area between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea. This means that within these borders, Israel will not be able to maintain itself as a State of the Jewish people in the long term.

Disillusionment with the activities of the Palestinian National Authority (PA) is growing among Palestinians. The current state of the Palestinian economy is much worse than it was 15-20 years ago. The idea of a one-State solution to the conflict is becoming popular among Palestinians. Intellectuals who believe it is possible to dissolve the PNA and return to the management of territories according to the scheme that existed before 1994 - local self-government and the Israeli occ-belong to one direction.-

organizational administration. The second direction is represented by the Palestinians of the Diaspora in Western countries. Their program is more radical: it examines the relationship between Zionism and the Palestinian national movement within the framework of the colonial concept, and does not exclude the use of violence against the Israeli army. The return of the Palestinians to the idea of a one-State solution, while there is still no clear recognition of the national rights of the Jewish people, is probably the most deplorable outcome of the past two decades. There is a growing prospect of secular Palestinian nationalism retreating back to the positions it held before the 1990s.

In his report "Human rights in Tunisia in the era of globalization", A. I. Kuprin (Institute of Political Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences) analyzed the socio-economic and domestic political situation in the country. Globalization processes have created new human rights problems in Tunisia or exacerbated old ones. Since the early 1990s, there has been an unprecedented influx of migrants from sub-Saharan Africa to Egypt and the Greater Maghreb. According to various estimates, from 65 thousand to 120 thousand Africans annually illegally arrive in the countries of the Greater Maghreb, and some of the migrants cross to Europe, and some prefer to settle in North African countries. Authoritarian regimes, including in Tunisia, under the slogan of fighting international terrorism justified measures to restrict civil and political rights, including the activities of the opposition, dissidents and human rights organizations.

B. V. Dolgov (IB RAS) made a report on "The escalation of radical Islamism in the Maghreb countries". D. A. Nechitailo (IB RAS) made a report on "The political situation in Iraq". B. N. Gashev, A. B. Podtserob, and S. A. Vorobyov took an active part in the heated debates on the problems of the Middle East.

R. M. Sharipova (Institute of Islamic Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences) in her report "Muslims in Interfaith Dialogue (late XX - early XXI centuries)" touched upon the trends described in O. P. Bibikova's speech. In recent decades, there has been an aggravation of inter-confessional contradictions all over the world. Under these circumstances, the leaders of a number of Muslim states, as well as international Muslim organizations - the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), the League of Islamic Peace (LIM) and others are persistently looking for ways to bring peoples of different religions closer together. R. M. Sharipova listed in detail the events held by the Muslim side: international conferences in London and New York (2006); in Mecca and Spain (2008), where the Meccan Charter of Dialogue was adopted. The speaker also described the factors hindering interfaith dialogue, including disunity in the Muslim community; the presence of certain political forces in the West and in Russia that are not interested in bringing Muslims and Christians closer together.

Along with reports on the problems of Islam and the Muslim world, a number of speeches were devoted to the problems of Christianity and Buddhism. E. A. Krivey (Institute of History of the Russian Academy of Sciences) made a presentation "Copts in the light of the Ecumenical movement". The problems of Christianity and other religions in the East were discussed in the report of I. A. Vorobyova (IB RAS) "The Holy City of Jerusalem: Historical and modern realities". S. B. Filatov (IB RAS) in the report"Altaians in search of a national faith: Buddhism, paganism or Orthodoxy?" he summed up the results of his field research.

The section "Economic and Social problems" focused on the challenges faced by the Eastern countries in the economic sphere. These are primarily food and energy problems, and in the last year, the global financial crisis.

A.V. Akimov (IB RAS) in his report "Population growth and its availability of basic natural resources in the XXI century" described how population forecasts (four variants calculated by him) depend on the availability of fuel, energy and natural resources necessary for food production. It is estimated that the world's population could double by 2100. Most of the population growth will occur in Asia and Africa. Europe, North America and Oceania now account for approximately 17% of the world's population, while Asia and Africa account for 74%. The baseline ratio between developed countries and Asia and Africa is projected to change to 12% and 80% by 2050, and to 10% and 82% by 2100.

In a few decades, the problem of population and economic growth limits may become not only real, but also acute. One of the components of the modern economic model is the growth of consumption. Modern economic and technological models that work effectively in the context of globalization are resource-wasteful. In the context of economic globalization, competition for scarce resources can lead to acute conflicts that are detrimental to the unity of the world economy and the process of globalization. Conflicts, rather than achievements, can become global.

V. N. Ulyakhin (Institute of Food Science of the Russian Academy of Sciences) made a presentation on "Developing Asian Countries and the global food crisis". The era of cheap bread is over, he said. Over the past year and a half or two, global food prices have increased by an average of 80-90%, and for some goods-more than twice. The food crisis is not new to Asia, and it is driven by both external and internal factors, including the proportions of cross-sectoral structural changes. Impulses of the "green revolution" in the East by the beginning of the XXI century they began to gradually fade, and its commodity potential was exhausted. The growth rate of food security slowed down.

From the point of view of external factors, the current food crisis can be traced to two stages: the first - from the late 1990s to mid-2008, the second - from mid-2008.The first is characterized by a direct correlation between fuel, raw materials and food prices. Along with the increase in oil prices, the main types of fertilizers have risen in price. The second stage (since mid-2008) coincides with the worsening of the global financial crisis and falling prices for hydrocarbons. The direct correlation between oil prices, which have halved, and food prices is disrupted amid financial speculation with grain futures.

The new industry of the global economy - bioenergy-has distorted the world food balance, firstly, through the reorientation of agricultural crops from food use to the production of bioethanol (about 1/7-1/5 of the grain crop) and biodiesel (about 1/5-1/3 of vegetable oils); secondly, through the reorientation of arable land for the production of raw materials for biofuels. Bioenergy has "tied" fuel prices to food prices; a new mechanism for regulating key markets has emerged, as well as new effective weapons to fight against oil-producing countries and to control import-dependent food countries in Asia.

The problem of the food crisis was the subject of a lively discussion. E. L. Zhigun (Institute of Near East) noted that there are now highly productive technologies for farming in dry lands, they are used in Israel. It is obvious that low agricultural productivity in African countries is not the result of technological dead ends, but of what can be called "institutional factors" - first of all, the inadequacy of state economic policies.

A. M. Petrov (IB RAS) made a report on "The XXI century and the Asian way of production". I. V. Deryugina (IB RAS) devoted her speech to the problem of resource availability and competitiveness of Kazakhstan.

N. N. Tsvetkova (IB RAS) in her report "The energy problem and the activities of TNCs in the countries of the East" noted that one of the important challenges that all countries face in the XXI century is the raw materials problem, and in particular the energy problem, but it is radically different for exporting and importing countries. For oil and gas importers, it is important that the economy needs are met with uninterrupted fuel supplies at minimal prices. Developed post-industrial countries after the oil shocks of the 1970s reacted to this by reducing the energy intensity of GDP by introducing new energy-saving technologies, including by moving energy-intensive and material-intensive industries to developing countries. As a result, by the mid-1980s, developed countries ' dependence on oil imports from developing countries had declined. From the mid-1980s to the late 1990s, oil prices were low.

During the period of high oil prices, since 2000, the development of renewable energy sources has intensified. Many oil TNCs and new economy companies invest in the development of alternative energy, including those that are not related to the energy sector by their main activity, such as Google and Sun Microsystems. The" most multinational "company in the world, General Electric, already has among its assets:-

The company produces wind turbines and conducts research on the development of solar panels.

For producers and exporters of energy raw materials, the answer to the challenge is not only to supply their raw materials to the world market at optimal prices, but also to ensure that the development of the oil industry contributes to the sustainable development of the entire economy.

The leading place in oil and gas production was occupied by companies of exporting countries, while Saudi ARAMCO was at the top of the list. Leading oil TNCs-the successors of the well-known "seven sisters" - compensate for the reduced share of participation in oil and gas production by maintaining control over oil transportation and significant positions in the oil refining and petrochemical industries.

T. L. Deitch (Institute of Africa of the Russian Academy of Sciences) also addressed the energy problem in the report "Africa in China's Energy Security Strategy". China's economic growth has created a huge demand for energy and mineral resources, primarily oil. China is currently the world's second largest consumer of crude oil. Almost 60% of all oil imported by China comes from the Middle East.

However, trying to find its niche in this market, China was faced with the fact that the latter was already almost occupied by developed countries. Under these conditions, China was forced to develop the few free "risky" markets that remained unoccupied or few people were interested in, among them the countries of Africa. China has managed to gain ground in many African countries during the national liberation movement and in recent years thanks to an extensive program of economic cooperation and active diplomacy on the continent. China's success in the oil sector in Africa is largely due to its key position: "China does not interfere in the internal affairs of other states", which means that it is ready to cooperate with any regime, without being conditioned, unlike the West, by the requirements of democracy, good governance or human rights.

L. F. Pakhomova (Institute of Economics of the Russian Academy of Sciences) in her report "Changing the economic policy of Southeast Asian countries taking into account the challenges of the XXI century" pointed out that the causes of the current global financial crisis are largely similar to the causes of the Asian crisis that broke out in the countries of East (Republic of Korea) and Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Thailand and Malaysia) in 1997-1998. However, its fundamental difference from the previous one is that it is systemic in nature. It is safe to assume that most of the social and economic ills that followed the 1997-1998 crisis, which affected Indonesia, Thailand, and to a lesser extent Malaysia, will continue to occur after 2008, but probably in a much larger number of countries. At the same time, various variants of internal problems are possible - the collapse of companies, inflation, unemployment, marginalization, as well as deficits in the balance of payments and state budgets.

L. F. Pakhomova's speech was the subject of a lively discussion, which was attended by B. N. Gashev and E. L. Zhigun.

N. A. Dlin (Institute of Economics of the Russian Academy of Sciences) presented the report "Initial principles of forming models of socio-economic development of capitalist, developing and post-socialist countries", in which he noted that since the end of the XX century, most countries have formed their own models of socio-economic development using productive elements of market liberal-bourgeois and national structures in various volumes and combinations.

З. N. Galich (IB RAS) in her report "New urban realities - world/global cities" considered the challenges associated with urbanization. At the turn of the XX-XXI centuries, in the context of globalization, a networked information society and interconnected cities are being formed, which are becoming important subjects and actors of the global economy. In such a situation, the "space of flows" begins to dominate over the "space of places" (a concept introduced by M. Castells) and "cities mean more than states". A new urban picture of the world is emerging with its own hierarchical system of cities, the leadership of which belongs to the global cities of both the West and the East.

An important problem of the modern megalopolis is the problem of migrants. L. A. Birchanskaya (IB RAS) made a report on the topic "Immigration to Moscow: attack or the dictates of time".

The discussion that took place at the conference was very fruitful, it allowed us to highlight the important facets of the challenges of the XXI century that are related to the situation in the countries of the East, and the responses of the countries of the East to the global challenges of our time.

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