The technological and tracological study of petroglyphs involves experimental developments at various levels: from general to more specific. On the basis of previous experiments, tasks were formulated to clarify data on the technological aspect of the execution of a series of petroglyphs in the Minusinsk basin. These included identifying the main features of the morphology and material of the tools used, as well as features of technical techniques, namely direct or indirect picketing. On the basis of experimental developments on the local rock and trace analysis of the results obtained, morphological features of tool tracks made of metal and local pebble raw materials were established. A new criterion for technological analysis of the obtained traces on the rock surface is introduced - the degree of massiveness of tools. For some of the technology-specific images of the Shalabolinskaya and Malaya Boyar scribbles, it was possible to reconstruct the basic characteristics of the technological process of their creation.

Keywords: petroglyphs, experiment, tracology, technology, indirect and direct picketing, Minusinsk basin.

The study of ancient technologies for making rock carvings involves a combination of experimental modeling methods and traceological analysis. The causal relationships caused by the specific physical properties of materials are studied. The results of the tracological study of archaeological artifacts and their experimental models are compared, which allows us to reconstruct ancient technologies. Stone, bone, and metal have a set of characteristics that determine the possibility of their processing and further application [Girya, 1997]. Experiment and tracology make it possible to identify traces of manufacturing and use of the objects under study based on technological and functional necessity (Semenov, 1957).

Technological and tracological study of petroglyphs involves the identification of specific MPas-

The work was carried out within the framework of the RGNF project 13 - 21 - 08002.

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phological characteristics of potholes forming rock carvings (i.e. traces of manufacturing), as well as determining the possibilities of processing the rock surface. Experimental data have been used to study petroglyphs since the late 19th and early 20th centuries (Whittaker, Koeman, and Taylor, 2000). M. A. Devlet, S. Kiselev, T. Mirsaatov, D. Kabirov, A. K. Filippov and many other researchers paid special attention to the technological aspect of creating rock images (Devlet, 1998; Kiselev, 1930; Mirsaatov and Kabirov, 1974; Filippov, 1994, 2004). A qualitatively new approach to the study of petroglyphs from the standpoint of the method of A. S. Semenov was first applied by E. Yu. Girey and E. G. Devlet [Girey and Devlet, 2008, 2010; Devlet and Girey, 2011]. As a result of technological and traceological studies of well-preserved carved rock carvings, it was possible to identify traceological signs of picket traces that differentiate the material of tools (stone/metal) used to make the studied petroglyphs [Ibid.]. These data allow us to indirectly date some of the images carved with metal tools to the late period, but do not provide information about the time of their creation. chronological affiliation of petroglyphs made with stone tools (Sher, 1980). Experimental developments have shown that the possibilities of this method are quite wide. It allows you to determine the type of picketage (direct, when the impactor leaves traces on the rock surface, or indirect, when the pulse sent by the impactor passes through an intermediary fixed on the rock surface), some features of the metals and stone raw materials of the tools that made the images (for example, the degree of wear resistance) , and so on. The experience of studying technologies in rock art shows a wide variety of technical possibilities and techniques for creating embossed images. A certain set of technology characteristics may indicate the existence of traditions in the choice of technical techniques and tools by ancient artists, which should presumably be recorded in the analysis of extensive materials. Of course, the plot-stylistic component as the main means of expression is the basis for attribution of petroglyphs [Ibid.]. Nevertheless, technology is also an expressive component in an indissoluble connection with other elements of the plan of expression in rock art. Thus, the study of picketing technologies can open up new opportunities to clarify not only the chronological, but also the cultural attribution of petroglyphs [Zotkina, 2012].

Technological research in archaeology involves experiments at various levels, involving different methodological orientations. Basic developments contribute to obtaining the most general knowledge about the technological characteristics of the materials under study. Based on such data, the technology in its entirety cannot be reconstructed. Nevertheless, such developments are necessary for the correct formulation of problems, clarification of the conditions of subsequent experimental situations, and the construction of models that allow replicating certain technological processes or phenomena extrapolated from archaeological material. The next stage is the search for answers to questions that arise during basic experiments and trace analysis of petroglyphs. Technological and traceological studies are becoming more specific and methodical. The last stage is the replication of the technological process, and the resulting copies must be morphologically similar or identical to the archaeological material being studied.

As part of the 2012 field work aimed at studying the technologies of rock art in the Minusinsk basin, a series of experiments of various levels were performed. As a rock base, we used blocks of red-colored Devonian sandstone, the layers of which are located across the treated planes. A tracological study of the traces of experimental punching on this rock allowed us to identify a set of universal features that differentiate the technique of direct and indirect picketing, regardless of the material from which the tool was made. First of all, they include the nature of the image borders. The outline of a sample made in the indirect dot technique is usually quite clear and relatively smooth, regardless of the width of the embossed line. When hitting without an intermediary, impacts are less controlled, and potholes that go beyond the contour are more common on the rock surface. Getting a line of dense picket lines with fairly clear borders, where the holes overlap each other, is also possible in the direct knockout technique. The band is quite wide, approx. 1.5 - 2.0 cm. When direct picketing is sparse (potholes do not overlap each other), the image borders can be very arbitrary, without a clear outline and with a large number of separately located potholes. This technique is most suitable for filling in the background of an image, although there are also contour petroglyphs made in this way. A special feature of direct picket tracks is a wide variety of pothole sizes located on the same site. The fact is that when working in this technique, the trajectory of the movement of the gun and the strength of the impulse of each blow are less controlled, the alternation of strong and weak blows is inevitable, and therefore the resulting damage is not guaranteed.

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potholes will be different from each other. With a powerful force pulse, the sharpened part of the tool penetrates deeper into the rock surface and the size of the pothole in the plan is usually larger than as a result of a weak impact, which leaves only a small shallow point on the rock. In addition, the shape of direct picket traces is less stable compared to the holes obtained when knocking out with an intermediary. This is due to the different kinematics of the tool's movements during impacts, which can be not only straight, but also pass tangentially relative to the rock surface (similar kinematics are observed when working with adzes), so the tracks often acquire a characteristic oblong shape in plan and depth that is not the same in all sections of the holes.

Experiments on modeling picket tracks with an intermediary allow us to record a set of characteristics that distinguish this type of equipment. First of all, the lines have clear borders, and there are practically no potholes that go beyond the image contour. This technique is more labor-intensive and requires more time. The artist has the ability to control the strokes, which means that each picket hole is positioned in the right way. Due to this specific technical technique, the performer willy-nilly thinks out the location of each pothole on the rock surface. This is related to another, sometimes occurring feature that characterizes the traces of indirect knocking-the ordering of holes. A special arrangement of traces, for example, when the line is made in one or two rows of closely adjacent potholes, may indicate a certain strategy for creating an image. In some cases, this can be traced on the material of petroglyphs of the Minusinsk basin (Figs. 1,1, 5). The width of solid picket lines with the use of an intermediary can be very small, within one or two holes, in contrast to fairly wide lines made in the direct knockout technique. An important indicator that characterizes not only the technical technique, but also some features of the tools used, is the depth of picket traces. When using an intermediary, the holes are usually larger in size in the profile compared to those obtained as a result of direct knocking out.

The methodological orientation of the series of experiments on which this article is based was more specific and assumed the identification of a certain characteristic of picket traces of various types of guns with different properties. The tasks and conditions for conducting a series of experiments were determined based on the results of previous experiments [Zotkina, 2012].

The practice of experimental studies shows that an important criterion for assessing picket traces is the degree of massiveness of the tool used to perform it. A non-massive metal tool, such as a small sharpened rod, even made of strong hardened steel, does not give deep potholes when used in the direct punching technique. Traces look like small, very superficial points, the depth of the relief in this case is less than 1 mm. The nature of the tracks is very specific, it is difficult to confuse them with others. In addition, they are not often found on the material of petroglyphs in the south of Siberia. However, the use of the same non-massive metal tool as an intermediary makes it possible to obtain deep holes with a small size of the entrance hole, which is one of the typical signs of using such a tool for indirect picketing [Giria and Devlet, 2010; Giria et al., 2011] (Fig. 2, 3-5).

Using a heavy metal tool with a massive working part, such as a chisel, in the direct punching technique, potholes of medium depth can be obtained, since the large mass of the tool increases the impact impulse (Fig. 2, 1, 2). In this case, metric parameters are important. A heavy weapon with a massive working part can penetrate quite deeply into the treated surface during picketing. In this case, the traces are wider than when working with a thin rod, since the contact surface of the working element of a large tool is usually larger. The resulting sample of knockout also has a set of universal features described above, which are characteristic of traces of direct picketing.

A massive metal tool used as an intermediary allows you to achieve the maximum depth of potholes (Fig. 3,2). An example is very deep, separately located potholes on Malaya Boyarskaya Pisanitsa (Fig. 3,1). In the course of experiments, it was possible to reconstruct the technological process of their creation. Direct picketing with sharpened massive tools (scrap, chisel) did not give either sufficient depth or clear outlines of the boundaries of potholes. The use of a coinage as an intermediary (a specially sharpened steel hammer of a stove maker - "kirochki"), and a hammer with a steel nozzle as an impactor made it possible to obtain traces similar in depth and outline to the large holes on the Malaya Boyarskaya Pisanitsa (Figs. 3, 2, 3), although the latter are somewhat more elongated in shape. the plan. Apparently, this is due to the sharper angle of sharpening the tool used by the ancient master. However, the nature of cracking of the right part of the edge of almost all potholes in both cases is identical and indicates the direction of the impact.

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1. Petroglyphs of the Shalabolinskaya pisanitsa and experimental traces of picketing, comparable with them.

1 - zoomorphic image on site 4; 2 - detailed fragment of zoomorphic image (animal's head and neck); 3 - traces of picketing with the use of a non-massive metal tool as an intermediary, obtained experimentally; 4 - image of a deer on site 4; 5 - detailed fragment of a deer image (animal's neck); 6-experimentally the resulting traces of picketing with the use of a pebble implement as an intermediary.

pulse of the impactor (Fig. 3, 1-4). In addition, among the materials of the Boyar scribble, there are potholes that are almost the same in shape ("crescent") as those obtained experimentally (Fig. 3, 4).

One of the tasks of experimental developments in 2012 was to study the traces of picketing with tools made of various materials. It is established that to create petroglyphs on red-colored Devonian sandstone, both stone and metal tools must have high hardness, strength, wear resistance, and the latter have a certain plasticity that reduces their fragility. The nature of the traces left on the rock surface during the work with stone and metal tools was studied. The efficiency and technological capabilities of tools with different morphologies made from different types of stone raw materials and various metals are evaluated.

Previous experimental developments mainly used such types of stone raw materials as flint and quartzite rocks (Girya and Devlet, 2008; Girya et al., 2011; Zotkina, 2012). Quartzite with a high quartz content is harder and stronger than flint. Both breeds are most common

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Fig. 2. Experimental samples of knockout made with metal tools.

1 - traces of direct picketing with a massive metal tool; 2-an experimental massive metal tool (minted); 3, 4 - traces of picketing using non-massive metal intermediaries with different working parts and experimental tools; 5, 6 - traces of picketing using non-massive metal intermediaries (after prolonged work).

they are isotropic, acceptable for splitting and allow you to get points with different sharpening angles. For the 2012 experiments, local Shalabolinsky pebble raw materials were used.

Shalabolinskaya pisanitsa, near which a series of experiments were conducted in 2010 and 2012, is located on the right bank of the Tuba River (a right tributary of the Yenisei). Local raw materials, the source of which is the river, are represented by stream pebbles. It contains fragments of various rocks, including sedimentary and igneous origin. Such stone raw materials have hardness and strength with much lower isotropy and brittleness compared to quartzite with a high quartz content and flint. The hardness of most rocks represented in the Yenisei and Tubinsk pebbles varies between 5.5 - 6.5 on the Mohs scale, and flint - about 7, while it is more brittle, which is why it is better pricked. Effective splitting of Shalabolinsky raw materials often requires more physical force than, for example, for splitting flint, which is also associated with a high degree of viscosity and hardness of rocks in the Yenisei basin. However, it is precisely these qualities that are better than-

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3. Samples of rock art of Malaya Boyarskaya pisanitsa.

1-large potholes; 2-experimentally obtained traces of picketing with steel stamping as an intermediary; 3-three-dimensional model of potholes (author X. Plisson); 4 - traces of hammered impacts of a characteristic shape that overlap the image of a house; 5 - a fragment of a zoomorphic image (potholes of which are of a specific shape).

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These structures ensure the wear resistance and, as a result, the effectiveness of tools made of this material during picketing on local looser sandstones. In experimental studies of the basic level, points made of Donetsk flint and local pebbles were used. For the purity of the experiment and the possibility of further comparison of the results obtained, only the picket technique with an intermediary was used in all cases, since with direct knocking out, the working part of the flint tools quickly became unusable.

Experiments have demonstrated the difference in the change of points from different types of stone raw materials during picketing. The configuration of the working part of a flint implement changes quite quickly, which also determines the morphology of the resulting traces (Figs. 4, 4). Potholes at the initial and final stages of creating an experimental sample can significantly differ in shape and size. The flint tip wears out rather quickly, forming a so-called chisel-like tool (Giria and Devlet, 2010). A similar pattern is observed when picketing tools made of quartzite rocks, although they are more wear-resistant. Knocking out can take longer, but the principle of changing the working part of the points is the same. In both cases, the traces on the rock surface are modified by the scr.-

Fig. 4. Experimental samples of knockout made with stone tools.

1-traces of direct picketing with stone tools from Shalabolinsky shingle and experimental tools; 2-traces of direct picketing with shingle tools from shalabolinsky raw materials (detailed photos of samples and tools used); 3-points from shalabolinsky shingle; 4 - traces of picketing with the use of a flint tool as an intermediary and an experimental tool; 5 - traces of picketing with using shingle tools from Shalabolinsky raw materials as intermediaries.

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bench press mode. The main characteristic of stone tool knocking out of brittle raw materials is precisely the variability of the shape of traces within a single image [Girya et al., 2011; Devlet and Girya, 2011].

Tools made from local more viscous raw materials change differently. At the first stage of work, small scales can be painted at the point of contact of the tip with the rock surface. But then the working part of the tool becomes more stable, because the material in the contact zone is compacted. Wear of the tool is slower as a result of smoothing the tip, and not because of its destruction and radical modification. Thus, picketing with tools made from local Yenisei raw materials gives traces of a different nature than when knocking out flint and quartzite points, which is due to a more stable morphology of the working element.

In the course of basic experiments, traceologically significant signs of picket tracks on the rock surface were identified using tools made from various types of stone raw materials. Tools made from local pebbles have shown their effectiveness when working on red-colored Devonian sandstone.

Further research was aimed at obtaining information about the technological capabilities and the nature of traces of direct and indirect picketing with tools made from local raw materials. To carry out this series of experiments, we made four tools from pebbles of the Tuba River channel alluvium (the selected rocks are not rare or specific). Typologically, they can be classified as rubyls (Figs. 4, 1, 3). The sharpened working area was formed by alternating two-sided pounding with blows of a massive hard bump (syenite), while the rest of the tool surface retained a pebble crust. Tool No. 1 is made of a viscous coarse-grained rock of igneous origin, the grains of which are different in size*. Petrophysical properties of this raw material, namely viscosity, hardness (within 5.5-6.0 on the Mohs scale), allowed us to effectively work in the picket technique on red-colored sandstone for a long time. However, the different grain size of the rock makes the material relatively brittle, since the pressure on different granules at the time of operation is different. At the same time, this raw material has isotropic properties sufficient to form the tip of the required configuration, i.e. it is suitable for splitting. Tools N 2 and 3 are made of rocks with similar petrophysical characteristics. Their hardness is approximately 5.5-6.0 on the Mohs scale. Both rocks are heterogeneous, in the first case there is a high content of quartz grains, which increases the hardness of raw materials, and in the second - inclusions of feldspar. The material is very viscous, and chipping even small flakes required the application of a powerful force pulse. A characteristic feature of this type of raw material is also the different grain size, which makes it relatively brittle. Tool No. 4 is made of metamorphosed fine-grained sandstone with mica cement. It is a hard rock (approx. 6 on the Mohs scale). It is less granular and more isotropic than rubil material N 1-3.The high content of mica, which tightly binds the rock granules, makes it viscous and homogeneous, which reduces its brittleness.

The following conclusions were drawn about the nature of the traces of knocking out obtained during direct and indirect picketing with shod Tubinsk pebbles. Due to their strength, stone choppers can stay in operation for quite a long time (several hours), while maintaining efficiency. Wear occurred mainly as a result of gradual clogging (smoothing) of the pointed part, during which it was compacted. Adjusting the working element by pounding is often difficult or even impossible due to the increased strength of this section. The potholes obtained as a result of indirect picketing can be quite deep, the outlines of their edges are irregular, as if torn, but the shape of the holes remains stable (Fig. 4, 5). Sometimes their outline changes in the plan, most often due to a change in the position of the tool in the hand or relative to the rock surface. Much less often, this can be due to the destruction and sudden change in the configuration of the working part of the tool.

An experimental study revealed the characteristics of direct picket marks with pebble tools made from Tuba raw materials (Figs. 4, 2). Practice shows that creating a punch on red sandstone in this way is not only possible, but also effective. Traces of direct picketing in this case are quite stable in plan, often close to a rounded shape. In addition, they have a set of universal features described above that are characteristic of this technique. Traces of direct picketing with heavy metal tools and tools made from Tubinsk pebbles have a number of similar features: instability of depth and shape, on average, a large depth of continuous gouging relative to the rock surface, as well as approximately the same width, which is the minimum necessary for obtaining holes that fit tightly together with a flat picket line (see Figs. 2, 1; 4, 1, 2). All these indicators indicate a kinet similarity-

* The authors are grateful to N. A. Kulik for the petrographic analysis of experimental pebble tools.

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matics of gun movement. However, it is not possible at this stage to differentiate the use of massive metal tools and stone tools made of viscous wear-resistant raw materials by the nature of traces. Conducting more comparative experiments may prove promising for establishing differentiation criteria.

Experiments on modeling the traces of indirect picketing using stone chops made of Tubinsk pebbles made it possible to obtain rather deep potholes of a peculiar shape with an irregular nature of their edges (see Figs. 4, 5). The technical technique makes it possible to fix the working part of the stone intermediary well on the rock surface and control the picketing process. In this way, the tracks can be arranged in a certain order. There is a morphological similarity between the potholes obtained experimentally and the holes of some petroglyphs, for example, a single image of a deer in the fourth section (according to the numbering of A. L. Zaiki [2007]) of the Shalabolinsky pisanitsa (see Figs. 1, 4-6).

Another area of research was the study of the characteristics of picketing with metal tools. Experimentally, it was found that the most suitable tools for performing rock carvings in this technique are tools made of "loose" brass and hardened steel. The methodological focus of such an experiment involves identifying the properties of materials necessary for processing the rock surface. Nevertheless, the result obtained does not allow us to exclude the possibility of using tools made of other metals with a set of properties characteristic of steel and high-strength brass for picketing. Within the framework of an experiment of this type, only the most general technological necessity is established, the possibility of processing a specific rock material by one or another means. Based on the obtained data, tasks were formulated for the subsequent stages of the experimental study.

The experiments involved raising more specific questions and studying certain aspects of the technology of creating petroglyphs using metal tools. For the first series, short guns were made, since the use of wooden handles was implied. But experiments have shown that the presence of the latter reduces the strength of the impulse, as a result of which the effectiveness of intermediaries decreases. These technical features are taken into account in subsequent developments. Further experimental studies were carried out with the aim of reconstructing a specific technological process, namely, creating traces of knocking out on red-colored Devonian sandstone using the indirect picketing technique using short blows of small force. Metal rods (cores) made of hardened steel with a length of approx. 12 cm with a working part of different morphology were used as intermediaries (see Figs.2, 3 - 6), and a hammer with a wooden handle and a steel nozzle was used as a bump stop.

In the works of E. Y. Giri and E. G. Devlet, one of the important characteristics of metal tool punching is the morphology of individual potholes in the plan. Their shape is most often sub-circular (Giria and Devlet, 2010; Giria et al., 2011) (see Figs. However, the results of experiments and materials from various rock art objects show that picket traces with a complex of characteristic features identifying the use of metal tools can have not only a rounded shape (see Fig. 2, 3 - 6; 3, 5). Based on the experience of previous developments and preliminary traceological analysis of the surface of the rock images of Shalabolinskaya and Malaya The task of the subsequent stages of experimental research was formulated. It consisted in identifying the characteristics of traces from steel intermediaries with different morphology of the working part at different stages of tool wear.

As a result of experimental modeling of several knockout samples, it was found that the working part of steel cores, regardless of its shape, wears out to a state of slight flatness quite quickly. However, unlike tools made of other metals, which are more brittle or more ductile, this modification does not complicate further work: the traces obtained during picketing largely retain their shape in plan, which is determined by the morphology of the working part of the tool (see Figs. 2, 3, 4).

Even a very strong steel tool will wear out with prolonged use. There are two ways of picketing using a non-massive metal cannon as an intermediary. The first one assumes a perpendicular position of the tool relative to the rock plane. In this case, its working part becomes flattened and further work will be difficult. At the last stage of wear of the tool, potholes formed on the rock surface have a wide entrance hole. Their depth, as a rule, is less than the holes obtained with a well-sharpened tool. The edges of potholes retain a regular, even outline. At the same time, despite the increase in the working part of the tool in size, the shape of the latter may resemble the original version (see Fig. 2, 5, 6).

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The second method allows you to maintain the effectiveness of the tool longer by using the inclined position of the tip. Practice shows that if the picket line is placed at an angle to the surface to be treated, then the side sections of the tip will flatten from the blows. So the working part is naturally corrected in the process of work. In this case, traces of rounded outlines in the plan, obliquely located in the profile, of approximately the same depth, which can be quite large, are more often recorded on the rock plane. With such picketing, the entrance holes of potholes remain relatively narrow, despite prolonged use of the tool. It is this option of using metal intermediaries that seems to be more rational, which, apparently, determines the choice of this method of picketing by ancient artists in many cases.

Nevertheless, the rock art monuments of the Minusinsk basin show traces of various shapes, from sub-triangular and sub-square to elongated linear ones, and they retain the main signs of picketing with metal tools, namely, the stability of the shape in plan and the regularity of the pothole boundaries (see Figs. 3, 5). Such traceological characteristics may be associated with the choice of ancient tools for picketing. artists of the first variant of the tool use strategy and the short duration of the technological process.

One of the problems of studying picket traces in rock art is their modification as a result of desquamation. The transformed rock surface immediately after knocking out is different from that which has been weathered over a long period of time. Fresh potholes may contain a fine fraction, which is not always possible to remove even with a hard brush. Observations show that in some cases several months are sufficient for deepening the holes (see Fig. 3,2). It is promising to further study the weathering phenomenon based on the traces obtained in the course of experiments. This aspect is important for the traceological analysis of petroglyphs, since until now the comparison of authentic samples and experimental standards was carried out in a short time after the creation of the latter. To obtain new data on the nature of changes in the rock surface, including the depth of potholes, it is necessary to conduct monitoring based on the materials of experimental studies of previous years.

An important place in the study of the effect of weathering is occupied by the analysis of the nature of the treated surface. Traceological signs of knockout tracks largely depend on the presence and condition of the rock crust. If it has undergone significant changes under the influence of natural processes, potholes are formed during picketing with minimal power costs, but in this case it is difficult to achieve even borders of knocking out or even contours of individual holes. This is due to the appearance of cracks on the crust from impacts. Individual potholes turn out to be larger in plan than the working part of the tool, and their borders are less clear. The difference between the traces of picketing with identical parameters, performed on a strongly and slightly eroded rock surface, is quite significant. In the course of experiments and trace analysis of petroglyphs, this specific feature of the rock base should be taken into account.

Summing up the experimental studies and the primary tracological study of the embossed petroglyphs of the Minusinsk basin, we can identify a number of features of the technology of their creation. Direct picketing was widely used to create both silhouette and contour images, while indirect picketing was more often used to create a sketch or further study the contours of shapes. Preference was given to tools made from local viscous pebble raw materials or from wear-resistant metals, such as hardened steel (or similar properties). An important characteristic of the metal tools used to create the embossed images is the degree of massiveness of the tools. Judging by the nature of the traces of direct picketing found on the petroglyphs of the Minusinsk basin, we can conclude that the ancient masters often used massive, but well-sharpened metal tools.

Speaking about the results of experimental modeling of picket tracks on red-colored Devonian sandstones, it should be noted that the presented developments had rather a general methodological orientation. In the course of experiments, in some cases, traces were obtained that have a number of trace features noted on the materials of the Shalabolinskaya and Malaya Boyar scribes. However, at this stage of development of the technique of technological and tracological study of petroglyphs, the primary task is not to replicate specific images, but to identify the main technological patterns that determine the possibility of creating petroglyphs, and the criteria for tracological analysis of the latter. This will make it possible in the future to obtain traces of picketing that are identical to those that form rock carvings, and to extrapolate the results of experiments to specific archaeological material. Knowledge of petroglyph creation technologies makes it possible to reach a new level of attribution of rock art samples in the region under study.

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The article was received by the editorial Board on 21.12.12, in the final version-on 20.02.13.

Abstract

The technological and use-wear analysis of petroglyphic art is based on experiments at various levels, from general to more specific. We formulate the objectives of future technological studies ofpetroglyphs in the Minusinsk Basin. We address the morphology and material of the tools, and the principal technological devices including direct and indirect piquettage. Based on experiments with local rocks and the results of use-wear analysis we establish the morphological features of traces left by metal tools and by those made on local pebbles. A new technological criterion is suggested regarding the robustness of tools with which the carvings were made. Basic technological stages in the creation ofpetroglyphs are reconstructed for Shalabolinskaya and Malaya Boyarskaya rock art sites.

Keywords: petroglyphs, experiment, traceological analysis, technology, direct and indirect piquettage, Minusinsk Basin.

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