Igor Mikhailovich Diakonov, being both a historian of antiquity and primitiveness and a linguist-comparativist, was one of the first to attract linguistic data for the reconstruction of pre-written cultures. This article, which develops this interdisciplinary direction , is a tribute to his memory. It is written by junior co-authors of I. M. Diakonov, representing two generations of his informal students.

The purpose of the article is to provide linguistic evidence for the following statements::

1. The meaning of Pollinate (plants of the verb root rkb, attested in several Semitic languages-Akkadian, post-biblical Hebrew, Hebrew

* The study was conducted in the framework of projects supported by the Russian Humanities Research Foundation (project code N 99-04-00177a) and the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (project code N 99-06-80349).

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Aramaic and Amharic - is a common Semitic language, which means that in the culture of native speakers of the common Semitic language-the ancestor of those languages where this term was preserved, there was an idea of pollination of plants (first of all, the date palm). Moreover, the obvious origin of the meaning "Pollinate" from the meaning" copulate " of the same proto-Semitic verb rkb indicates an adequate understanding of biological processes by ancient Semites at such an early period (we emphasize that the dating of the common language state for which the term "pollinate" can be reconstructed, namely the second quarter of the IV millennium, in general, it does not differ from the generally accepted one).

2. Another meaning of the root rkb - " to graft (plant)", ultimately apparently related to "pollination", is also Semitic. The difference is that this meaning is attested in post-biblical Hebrew, Hebrew Aramaic, and Amharic (see also Arabic), but not in Akkadian. Thus, the dating of the common language state-the ancestor of these languages-turns out to be somewhat later (according to the glottochronological assessment of A. Militarev, this is the beginning of the third millennium BC), but still early enough that the postulation of the corresponding practice does not look like a trivial statement. That, at least, is how it looks to our unprofessional eyes; early agricultural technology specialists may see it differently.

It is not for us, but for representatives of the respective regions, to judge whether any group of the Near Asian population in the IV-III millennia could have had similar agrobiological ideas or possess similar agricultural techniques. Perhaps our data will attract their attention or even some revision of existing ideas. A negative response from ethnobotanists will mean something more serious than a simple discrepancy between the data of different sciences: we do not see a logical possibility to interpret the linguistic data presented below in any other way than as it is done in our study. In any case, we will be grateful for any feedback from specialists in material culture of this period.

Go to the material.

Family-wide *rkb "pollinate":

Акк. rkh'(D) "Palmgarten (durch Befruchtung) pflegen" (AHw 944).

The most important evidence of this meaning of acc. rakdbu is found in paragraphs 64-65 of the Laws of Hammurabi, which deals with the payment of gardener's labor for pollination (rukkubum) of palm plantations. The contexts are not technologically informative, but it can be inferred from them that pollination was one of the main activities of the person who took care of the garden (in the section of the Laws on Gardening, only the paragraphs on the actual planting of trees are adjacent to it), and that the lack of pollination was understood as a damage to the plantation, since it led to a decrease in yield (biltam umtatti; a similar expression is found in paragraph 264 about a careless shepherd who reduced the offspring of the cattle assigned to him) (1).

From (AHw 944), it can be concluded that von Soden assumes the meaning of "pollinate" (or close to it) for one context in the main breed (ra-kib in Dreams 329), which seems to be erroneous (see the translation of this fragment as " if he sits upon a date-palm"from the publisher of these texts, A. L. Oppenheim).

Among the nominal derivatives of this root related to the semantics we are interested in, we mention rikbu " mannliche Bliite "(AHw 983) (for the context, see below), rukkubu

1. For more details, see the commentary to this passage in Driver G. R., Miles J. C. The Babilonian Laws. V. 2. Oxf., 1955 (hereinafter referred to as Driver - Miles). P. 185-186, with references to other (albeit few) Old Babylonian documents containing this term (for example, VS 7.34.11, agreement on the maintenance of palm trees; see the relatively recent contracts of the Samuel period (YOS 12 126.12, 440.12, 558.6). There is also a convergence with the Hebrew and Aramaic terms given below, and ancient evidence of palm pollination in ancient Mesopotamia is discussed.

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'befruchtet (Dattelpalrne)3 (AHw 994) and tarkiluhtu ' Dattelpalmen-Befruchtung3 (AHw 1330) (found, in particular, in the Laws of Hammurabi,? 66). Finally, it should be noted that all extant uses of the Akkadian root rkb in this sense belong to the Old Babylonian period.

Hebrew PB rkb (hip.) 'to pollinate' 5 (ESh 675) (missing from dictionaries of early post-biblical Hebrew; this meaning in modern Hebrew was pointed out to us by M. A. Chlenov, to whom we are grateful).

Jud. rkb (ar.) "to pollinate date-trees" (Sok 524). The same context is interpreted as "grafting" in Levy, TM IV 451 and Ja 1479, which is most likely erroneous, see Driver-Miles 185, which rightly points to the Babylonian Talmud Baba Kama 59', which describes the same process as mnhy kwpr7 dykri lnwkht7 ' placing male [tree] pollen on female. It is noteworthy that the first context (Jerusalem Talmud, Yebamot 15a) refers to Mesopotamia: 7ylyn dyklyf dbbi dit srykyn mrkb "those Babylonian palms that do not need pollination".

Amx. taSagari rkkbdbnnan 'cross-pollination3 (K 401 marked "neologism") at the synchronous level is reinterpreted as a combination of three elements: taSagari 'going across 3, t" 3kksb 'transfer, turning over3 and Bppap 'small particle, dust3. It is hardly possible to assume, however, that this is a mere coincidence, so the original meaning of the second element is most likely "pollination" (an additional argument in favor of the original meaning of this value is the presence in Amharic of the verb rkb "to graft", again absent in both Arabic and other Ephiosemitic languages).

The fixation of the verb "pollinate "in languages such as Akkadian, post-biblical Hebrew, and Hebrew Aramaic does not exclude the alternative explanation of its origin not as a general Semitic term, but as the result of inter-Semitic borrowings or"borrowed translations". It is very likely that this verb in Hebrew and Aramaic was transferred to one of these languages from another, and in any direction. You can't be sure that it didn't hit either or both of them from Akkadian. However, the obvious presence of the same term in Amharic makes it considered a general Semitic one - naturally, there are no ways to borrow the Akkadian word directly into Amharic: borrowing into Amharic from the Jewish-Aramaic area, bypassing Geez or Arabic, where this term is not attested, is also not possible.

West-Semitic *rkh "instill".

Hebrew PB rkb (hip.) 'to inoculate, engraft3 (Ja 1478), rdkab' branch for inoculation, set3 (ibid. 1479); see the context given in Levy TM IV 450: 7. mrkybyn zytyn brkb 51 tmrh "do not graft olives with palm grafting".

Иуд. rkb (ар.) 'to let gender, to inoculate3 (ibid), rikbd 'inoculation, young inoculated tree3 (ibid.).

Amx. tdrakkdbd "to be grafted (plant)", arrakkdbd "to graft plants" (K 401).

rdkib- 'tendre rameau du palmier qui descend en bas, sans cependant toucher la terre3 (BK 1 913), rakub- 'rejeton de palmier venu sur Ie tronc3 (ibid. 914), although no cultural connotations for these terms could be found.

If we can assume that the meaning of "plant" in West Semitic evolved from the meaning of "pollinate" according to some functional logic (it would be strange if the verbs "pollinate" and" plant (plant) " in the same languages turned out to be random homonyms), then the origin of the meaning of "pollinate" from " copulate"we can speak with confidence. It is appropriate, however, to first give a set of examples on the general Semitic *rkb "copulate".

Acc. rakdbu ' sexuell bespringen3 (AHw 944-945). Used about animals, for example-

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For example, donkeys (TDP 4.24 summa imeru atdna irkab-ma), as well as pigs, dogs, and birds. In addition to the main breed, it is also found in Gt and Gtn: 'einander begatten (Schwei-ne, Hunde, Schlangen) 3, ? ('beschalen'), as well as in the nominal derivatives rdkibu, rakkdbu 'Geschlechtsreifes jungtier3 (AHw 948) and rikibtu' Koitus, Begattung3 (ibid. 985).

Jude. rkb (ar.) 'begatten, belegen lassen3 (Levy T 423).

Ser. rkeb ' saluit, iniit (feminam) 3 (Brock 730).

An Arab. (daxina dialect) nkeh \ aleha 'monter sur une femme3 =' faire 1'amour3 (GD 1380). Любопытно также араб. rakab- 'pubis (tant chez 1'homme que chez la femme, mais particu-lierment chez les femmes); parties naturelles de la femme3 (BK 1913).

Гез. tarakaba 'to have intercourse5, rukdbe 'intercourse5 (LGz 469).

Trp. tsrdkkabd, twakaba 'to copulate3 (LH 157).

Mxp. rekb 'to sleep with a woman' (JM 322) (an obvious typo in the GAY dictionary).

Джб. rekh 'to ride, to mount (also with sexual connotations)5, rtkh 'to jump on (in play

or sexual intercourse3 (JJ 211).

We have already had the opportunity to examine the Talmudic context, which is notable not only for its brief description of the technology of palm pollination, but also for the fact that this description was kept in a kind of "sexual" terms: pollinated trees are called exactly the same as copulating animals,i.e. "male" (dykr7) and "female" (dykr7).female" (nwkhtT). Similar terminology is also known from Akkadian texts in relation to both palm trees and some other plants. Thus, the lexical lists contain GIS.GISIMMAR NITA = zikaru "male palm" and GiS.GISIMMAR SAL = sinnisu "female palm". There are also more meaningful contexts, for example, "the story of miracles" V. 29 48: 8: ina Bdbili GIS. GISIMMAR NITA uhmu ittaSi "in Babylon, [even] the male palm tree bears dates." These data, it seems, quite convincingly indicate that the association of pollination with copulation has existed since ancient times on a synchronous linguistic and conceptual level. It is interesting, by the way, that in Arabic, where rkb is not recorded in the meaning of "pollinate", this concept is expressed by the root 7hr in the second breed - 'feconder un palmier femelle3 (BK 1 3), which is completely identical in consonant composition to the Arabic and Central Semitic term for male genitalia (Arabic librat -" penis, verge"(Blachere 7), Heb. PB febdr ' membrum genitale3 (Ja 9), Jud. 7ehdrd, lebwd id. (ibid. 44)).

In almost all Semitic languages, the verb root rkb has another meaning - "to ride".

Akk. rakdbu ' fahren, reiten3 (AHw 944-5).

Ugr. rkb ' montar3 (Del Olrno 624).

Евр. rdkab 'to ride, to mount3 (KB 1230).

Imp. rkh4o ride3 (HJ 1076).

Сир. rkeb 'vectus est (equo etc.); ascendit (equum)3 (Brock 730).

Мнд. rkb 'to ride3 (DM 435).

Арб. rkb 'monter une monture3 (BK 1 913).

Sub. rkb 'to ride3 (SD 117).

Gez. rakaba 'to ride, go by boat3 (LGz 469) is not quite reliable - according to Leslau, "probably reconstructed from markab 'boat3". It is noteworthy that this root is not present in this meaning in the living Ephiosemitic languages (both in them and in Geez, the most common meaning of this root is 'find 3, probably a homonym).

Mxp. rskeb 'to ride. to mount3 (JM 332).

Джб. reksh 'to ride, to mount3 (JJ 211). This value is usually assumed to be semantic.-

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a nickname for the meaning of "copulate" discussed above (see, for example, GD 1380). This assumption, which is quite plausible typologically (cf.to mount in English or montar in Spanish), is not, however, the only one.

The fact is that the root rkb has another very common meaning, namely "to be placed on top, superimposed, joined" , etc.:

Acc. rakdbu ' obenliegen3 (Korperteile) (AHw 944).

Hebrew PB rkb (hip.) 'to join, combine3 (Ja 1478).

Арб. rkb II 'mettre une chose sur une autre, superposer 1'une a 1'autre; composer, faire d'un corps simple un corps compose3 (BK 1 913).

Гез. tarakaba 'to meet one another, be together3 (LGz 469), rukdbe 'joining together3 (ibid.).

Trp. twakkdbd, tarakaba 'to meet, come across3 (LH 157).

Amx. tdrakkdbd 'to be joined, fitted together3 (K 401).

In addition, the *rakh - "upper millstone" derivative, which has been recorded in the Syro-Palestinian region since ancient times, is clearly related to this meaning (see the combination sakba-rakba "upper and lower millstones" that has come down to us in the Egyptian syllabic script) (2). The lower millstone is denoted as * sakb - "something lying down". It is possible that in this case we are also dealing with an ancient sexual metaphor, since such allusions in the terminology of mill work are not uncommon in the languages of the world (see examples in KB 374 sub thn 'to grind3).

The question of whether the meaning of "placed on top, etc." is not primary to "riding" is beyond the scope of this article; for a curious, if somewhat outdated, discussion of this issue, see GD 1380-1391. What is important for us is that meanings such as "to be on top" or "to join" can undoubtedly be postulated as sources for the meaning of "to copulate"; this is the approach adopted, for example, in most dictionaries of the Ephesimitic languages, where rkb 'to have intercourse3 is usually simply equated with rkb 'to meet, join, come together3, cf. (LGz 469).

The above dates of the cultural terms "pollinate" and" graft " are based on the glottochronological calculation of the time of separation of Semitic languages according to the method of S. A. Starostin (3).

Here is a genetic tree of a Semitic family with a time scale compiled by A. Y. Militarev (see diagram p. 234)

The most radical difference between this genetic classification and the generally accepted ones is the place in it of modern South Arabian languages, separated into the South Semitic branch of the Semitic family, which was the first to separate from the proto-Semitic language. It should be noted that this position, put forward by one of the authors of this article (A. Y. Militarev) on the basis of his glottochronological studies, is not shared by another author (L. E. Kogan), who tends to adhere to a more traditional classification based on joint morphological innovations first in all languages except Akkadian (i.e., the division into Western and eastern branches), and then in Arab-Jewish-Aramaic (central Semitic) and in Sabean-Ethiopian-SUA (South Semitic).

It is quite obvious that the meanings of the verb root rkb "to copulate" and "to ride" are already fixed at the proto-Semitic level, both according to the classification of A. Y. Militarev (the root rkb in both meanings is attested in modern South Arabian languages and in Akkadian), and according to traditional classifications (rkb in both meanings is found in the Russian language). Akkadian).

2. См. Hoch J.E. Semitic Words in Egyptian Texts of the New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period. Princeton, 1994. P.289.

3. См. Militarev A. Towards the Chronology of Afrasian (Afroasiatic) and its Daughter Families // Proceedings of the Intern. Symposium "Time Depth in Historical Linguistics". August, 1999. Cambrige. Forthcoming.

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Genetic tree of the Semitic language family (according to A. Y. Militarev)

In this article, we are more interested in derived cultural terms. One of them, *rkb "pollinate", is attested, among other languages, in Akkadian (i.e., it is proto-Semitic according to traditional classifications), but not in modern ones

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According to the classification of A. Y. Militarev, this term is fixed in North Semitic before its division in the second quarter of the IV millennium (37th century on the time scale).

Another cultural term, *rkb "to inculcate", is not known in either Akkadian or modern South Arabian languages, but is found in the central group and peripheral/Ephiosemitic (in Amharic). According to the above scheme, it is included in the northwestern sub-branch, in other words, it is fixed in northwestern Semitic until its division at the beginning of the Shek (29th century on the time scale).

Abbreviations of language names

acc. - Akkadian, amx. - Amharic, Arb. - Arabic, gez. - geez, jb. - Jibbali, Hebrew (PB) - Hebrew (post-biblical), Imp. - imperial Aramaic, Jud. - Judeo-Aramaic, Mnd. - Mandaic, Mhr. - Mehri, Sab. - Sabean, Sem. - Semitic, Ser. - Syriac, SUA-modern South Arabian languages, Tr. - Tigre, Ugr. - Ugaritic, Efiosem. - Ephiosemitic

Abbreviations of lexicographic manuals

AHw - Soden W. von. Akkadisches Handworterbuch. Wiesbaden, 1965-1981

BK - Biberstein-Kazimirski A.de. Dictionnaire arabe-francais. P., 1860 Blachere - Blachere R., Chouemi M.m., Denizeau C. Dictionnaire Arabe-Francais-Anglais. P., 1964-...

Brock - Brockelmann C. Lexicon Syriacum. Halle, 1928

CAD - The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute, the University of Chicago. Chicago, 1956-...

Del Oimo - Del Oimo Lete G. Mitos e leyendas de Canaan segun la tradicidn de Ugarit. Madrid, 1981

DM - Drawer E.S., Macuch R. A Mandaic Dictionary. Oxf., 1963

ESh - Even-SoSan A. Milon xada? menukad umcuyar. YeruSalayim, 1961

GD-Landberg C. Glossaire Datmois. Leiden, 1920-1942

HJ - Hoftijzer J., Jongeling K. Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions. Leiden -New York - Koln, 1995

Ja - Jastrow M. Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Babli and Yerushalmi, and the Midrashic Literature. N.Y., 1996

JJ-Johnstone T.M. Jibbali Lexicon. Oxf., 1981

JM - Johnstone T.M. Mehri Lexicon. L., 1987

К - Kane T.L. Amharic-English Dictionary. Wiesbaden, 1990

KB - Koehler L., Baumgartner W. (revised by W. Baumgartner and J.J. Stamm). The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Leiden - New York - Koln, 1994-...

LGz -Leslau W. Comparative Dictionary ofGeYez (Classical Ethiopic). Wiesbaden, 1987

Levy Т - Levy J. Chaldaisches Worterbuch liber die Targumim. Lpz, 1881

Levy TM - Levy J. Neuhebraisches und Chaldaisches Worterbuch fiber die Talmudim and Midraschim, V. 1. В., 1924

LH - Littmann E., Hofner M. Worterbuch der Tigre-Sprache. Tigre- deutsch-englisch. Wiesbaden, 1956

SD - Beeston A.F.L., Ghul M.A? Miiller W.W., Ryckmans J. Sabaic Dictionary (English-French-Arabic). Louvain-la-Neuve, 1982

Sok - SokoloffMA. Dictionary of Jewish Palestinian Aramaic. Jerusalem, 1990

References to Akkadian sources, as well as periods and dialects of the Akkadian language, are given in the generally accepted Assyriological abbreviations contained in the first volume of the AHw and before the main text of each of the CAD volumes.

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ON SOME AGROBIOLOGICAL NOTIONS IN THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST

(The Terms Denoting Tree-Pollinating and Grafting in the Language of Ancient Semites) А. Ум. Militarev, L.Ye. Kogan

The authors claim that the Common Semitic verbal root *rkb whose well-known meaning is "to ride, to mount" may have had other meanings already on the early Semitic level. Among these, some important cultural notions are found, namely such agricultural operations as tree-pollinating and grafting. Further discussion focuses on the sexual connotations presumably underlying this peculiar meaning shift (the meaning "to copulate" for *rkb is also attested throughout Semitic). This association is discussed on both synchronic and diachronic levels and is illustrated by textual evidences from ancient Near Eastern languages, mostly Old Babylonian Akkadian and Judaic Aramaic. Obviously enough, postulating these very specific technological skills in such an early period is far from being trivial and makes us reconsider the traditional views on the cultural history of the Semites. The last part of the article discusses recent progress in dating Proto-Semitic.

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