CL. JACQUES, PH. LAFOND. THE KHMER EMPIRE: CITIES AND SANCTUARIES, FIFTH TO THE THIRTEENTH CENTURIES. Bangkok: River Books, 2007. 279 p., ill.*

Cambodia is one of the countries whose history and modernity constantly attract attention. The majestic temples of Angkor and the rule of the bloody Khmer Rouge regime will leave few people indifferent. There are hardly many topics in Asia that are written about every year. Meanwhile, the history and art of Angkor have been examined repeatedly in recent years. Books by M. Koh, C. Higham, M. Freeman, and Cl. Jacques, V. Roveda, and N. I. Rybakova have been published, not counting the articles of dozens of experts and amateurs [Soe, 2003; Higham, 2001; Freeman and Jacques, 2006; Roveda, 2005; 2007; Rybakov, 2007]. Colleagues are developing the Greater Angkor project, which is dedicated to studying the causes of the decline of the Angkor Empire and the role of water resources management in its history [Fletcher et al., 2006; 2008].

Claude Jacques ' peer-reviewed monograph sums up his research on the history of Cambodia in a certain sense. F. Lafon, a world-famous photographer, provided the book with magnificent color illustrations that allow you to see firsthand the unprecedented beauty of ancient Khmer architecture and as if transported to the world of temples, jungles and other cultures.

The book consists of a preface (authored by renowned historian D. Chandler), an introduction, seven chapters, a short bibliography, a glossary, and an index.

In the introduction "Country and People", Jacques describes the sources of learning about Khmer history, features of beliefs, Khmer ideas about the king, everyday life, the army and major holidays. All these data are accompanied by illustrative material from the famous Angkor reliefs, modern archaeological finds and photographs. Especially interesting is the comparison of the Feast of the dead, the feast of waning water, and the rite of the king's first furrow with traditional beliefs, rather than those borrowed from India.

The first chapter, "Funan-a major Early state in Southeast Asia," examines key issues in Cambodia's history: the emergence of statehood from its earliest beginnings.

* Cl. Jacques, F. Lafont. The Khmer Empire: Cities and temples from the fifth to the thirteenth centuries. Bangkok: River Books, 2007. 279 p., ill.

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steps and perceptions of Indian beliefs. Based on modern historical, archaeological, and epigraphic studies, Jacques comes to the conclusion that complex communities appeared independently on the territory of the country as early as the 1st millennium BC. Although the title of the chapter refers to the "state" of Funan, the French historian prefers to say that its political structure, denoted by the term Go in Chinese chronicles, is better characterized by the concept of principality or kingdom. The origin of Funani was not associated with the advent of the Indians. The connection of the word "Funan" with the ancient Khmer vnam (modern phnom) "hill, mountain" does not seem convincing to Jacques, since the area of Funan's existence is a completely flat plain, where the highest point above sea level does not exceed one hundred meters.

The researcher interprets Indianization in the religious aspect - as the contribution of Indian religions to local culture. He sees trade as the cause of Indianization: "There is reason to believe that Indianization was due to trade" (p. 49). Based on the excavations, it can be concluded that different regions of India influenced the countries of Southeast Asia: while the statues of Vishnu are stylistically similar to the art of the Guptas of Northwestern India, writing (pal-lava alphabets) borrowed from South India. Jacques summarizes the results of the latest research on Angkor Borei (the University of Hawaii expedition led by M. Stark) and Okeo (a joint Franco-Vietnamese expedition led by P.-I. Mangan and Vo Shi Khao). Extremely interesting is the statue of Vishnu, dating from about the turn of the VI-VII centuries. and found in Phnom Da near the city of Takeo: The god is depicted in a tiara with eight arms holding attributes common to other Hindu deities: an antelope skin (Shiva), a dagger in a scabbard (sometimes Shiva), fire (Agni), lightning (Indra), a pitcher (Brahma and Shiva). There are also typical Vishnu attributes: the tiara itself, a club and lotus stalks.

In the second chapter, "Dawn of Khmer History - Chenla", Jacques reconstructs the history of the pre-Angkor Khmer people in the VI-VIII centuries on the basis of the latest epigraphic and archaeological finds. He considers the key monuments of the era to be:: Wat Phu, located south of Bassak on the Mekong River (Southern Laos), Si Thep on the Pasak River north of Chhayaphum (Thailand), Sambor Prey Kuk northeast of Kompong Thom and Phnom Bayang (Cambodia's southern border with Vietnam). A French historian believes that Si Thep and Wat Phu were the centers of two polities, and the ruler Si Thep Dewanika came to Wat Phu, where he left his inscription (pp. 68-69). Devanika in the constructions of Jacques turns out to be the ancestor of Viravarman, the first king of Wat Phu. Like the rest of the monograph, the chapter is provided with magnificent photographs, one of which contains the inscription of Mahendravarman (p. 72), and the other - the inscription on the ceiling of the sanctuary of Tham Lek on Mount Lingaparvata near Wat Phu (p.74). There are plans for Wat Phu monuments and various Sambor Prey Kuk ensembles.

The third chapter, "The Beginning of the Khmer Empire and the Koh Ker episode", tells about the adoption of the title of chakravartin ("universal lord/emperor") by Jayavarman II in 802 (reigned until 835), the transfer of the capital by Yashovarman (889-910) to the Angkor district, and the architecture of Koh Ker - the residence of Jayavarman IV (928-941), who refused to accept it. from living in Angkor. It is with Jayavarman II that the history of the Angkor Empire begins, since all subsequent kings bore the title of chakravartin and were mostly his descendants. According to Jacques, the Angkor Empire "was never essentially monolithic, but rather a collection of fiefdoms, not necessarily contiguous, and therefore leaving the possibility of maintaining a certain degree of independence in the intervening lands" (p.106). The author solves the confusing problem of the concept of "devaraja", who was often considered a "god-king", i.e. a deified ruler (Sedov, 1967, pp. 76-81), in the spirit of modern historiography: This is the personal name of the "king of the gods", the ruler of all the guardian spirits of the Khmer lands (see also: [Higham, 2001, p. 59; Coe, 2003, p. 99]).

The capital of Jayavarman IV, Koh Ker (otherwise Chhok Gar Gyar), is located about sixty kilometers northeast of Angkor. Among the many temples of Koh Kera, Jacques describes Prasat Thom, Prasat Kraham, Prang, temples G, H, I and K, Prasat Krachap, Banteay Pi Chhean and some others, as well as rock carvings from Ang Khn.

The fourth chapter, "The Eleventh Century: Preah Vihear, Phnom Chhizor, Ta Muen and Mueang Tam" is devoted to temple construction under the warrior king Suryavarman I (1002-1050) and his successors. On the borders of the empire, Suryavarman ordered the construction of lingams (symbols of Shiva) and their corresponding temples. Of these, three are known: the western one at Wak Ek near Battambang, the northern one at Preah Vihear on the Dangrek Range, and the southern one at Phnom Chizor, sixty kilometers from Phnom Penh. All of them are described by Jacques with photos and plans. The chapter describes XI-century Khmer monuments from Northeastern Thailand: Mueang Tam and the Ta Muen group of monuments.

The fifth chapter, "Masters of Iron and Fire: The Preah Khan Temple of Kompong Swai", describes the architectural monuments of Kompong Swai and the iron-making craft of the Khmer kindred.

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the Kuoi people, from which, according to Jacques, came the famous Buddhist king Jayavarman VII. Jacques claims that the Kompong Svaya area formed an autonomous, if not independent, kingdom from the Angkor Empire, whose power was based on a monopoly in the production of iron, a strategic metal of the time.

Based on the iconography, Jacques draws a conclusion about the existence of a special kind of Buddhism in Kompong Svai-the Srighana school, a characteristic feature of which is the image of five sitting Buddhas on the gate lintel (lintel). Due to the small number of inscriptions found in Kompong Pile, dating of temples is possible only by stylistic and construction features. The main complex probably dates back to the 12th century, although there are also earlier buildings dating back to the second half of the 10th century.

The sixth chapter, "The Golden Age of Khmer Architecture: The Age of Angkor Wat," describes the temple architecture of the 12th-century temples and temple towns of Phimai on the Mun River and Phnom Rung near Mueang Tan (Thailand) and Beng Mealea (Cambodia). It describes the reign of the creator of Angkor Wat, Suryavarman II (1113-1150), and the relationship of the Angkor Empire with the kingdoms of Champa (Central Vietnam) and Daiviet (North Vietnam).

The seventh chapter, "The Art and Architecture of Bayon after Angkor," focuses on one of the greatest kings in Khmer history, Jayavarman VII, the zealous Buddhist who built the world - famous Bayon Temple, as well as his successors Indravarman II and the iconoclast Jayavarman VIII, the fierce persecutor of Buddhism. In it, the author examines the temples and temple cities of Wat Nokor, Banteay Chkhmar, Ta Prohm on Tonle Bati Lake (Cambodia) and Mueang Singh (Thailand) created under Jayavarman VII and Indravarman II. Under Jayavarman VII, the Agkor Empire included the territories of present-day Thailand up to Sukhothai and Mueang Singh, located west of the modern city of Kanchanaburi on the Kwai River, and Laos to Vientiane. The influence of Khmer art on Thailand is demonstrated by the examples of Lopburi shrines.

Claude Jacques dwells on the hospital chapels, which were erected by the tsar's order one hundred and two times, and on the "temples of fire" (pp. 261-263). He strongly objects to the interpretation of fire temples as "rest houses" (Coe, 2003, p. 128), which, in his opinion, were built of wood and reeds. This interpretation, for all its originality, is indirectly confirmed by the notes of the Chinese ambassador Zhou Daguan, who visited the Angkor Empire in 1296-1297, "Description of Cambodia: the land and its inhabitants", in the 34th chapter of which "Buddhist temples and pagodas" are lexically different from "guest houses" [Zhou Daguan, 2007, p. 79, 126-127]. The translator of the notes, P. Harris, based on architecture, considers "Buddhist temples and pagodas" rather as tower temples.

Thus, the reviewed monograph summarizes a variety of stylistic, archaeological, and written data on ancient and medieval Khmer cities and temples and offers a number of new interpretations. It is particularly valuable for focusing on relatively little-known monuments of Khmer art.

Nevertheless, it also contains controversial statements. Among them, Jacques dates the reigns of Indravarman II to about 1220-1270 and Jayavarman VIII to about 1270-1295 (p. 235, 264). Usually, the death of Indravarman II and the accession of Jayavarman VIII to the throne are attributed to 1243 [Coe, 2003, p. 128; Higham, 2001, p. 133; Miksic, 2007, p. 434; Sedov, 1967, p.47]. Unfortunately, Jacques does not justify his point of view.

Jacques ' hypothesis about the arrival of Devanika from Si Thep to Wat Phu and its connection with Viravarman is not convincing, because it is based on several assumptions. First, the message of the Devanika inscription originating from Wat Phu (K. 365) that the ruler "came from a distant land" (A12) is taken literally (Coedès, 1956, p. 212, 216, pi. I). Secondly, Devanika is identified with the unknown "Chakravartin" of the Bhavavarman inscription from Si Thep K. 978 [Coedès, 1964, p. 158]. Third, the Bhavavarman of the K. 978 inscription is identified with the eponymous ruler known from the Chitrasena-Mahendravarman inscriptions found in the Basaka (Laos) and Stung Treng (Cambodia) regions, hence near Wat Phu (Vickery, 1998, pp. 74-75). Fourth, Wat Phu and Si Thep are considered to be the only Indianized kingdoms in the Devanika era (for palaeographic reasons, its inscription is Jh. Sedee places in the second half of the fifth century, and the inscription K. 978, according to the clarification of M. Vickery, refers to the sixth century).

Alternatives can be found to these assumptions.

First, the term ("from a far country") of the K. 365 inscription may refer to the image of the Shiva lingam and not to the ruler who erected it; if it refers to the ruler, then the latter may theoretically come from anywhere, including Si Thep or the neighboring areas of the Dangrek range with Wat Phu.

Secondly, the Devanika-Chakravartin equation of the K. 978 inscription is not justified in any way: in his inscription, Devanika bears the title "great king of kings" if he ever had a name.-

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If he was considered a Cakravartin, then it is necessary to allow him to abandon his former title/name, which is unlikely, given the numerous praises to him in the inscription of K. 365 (in particular, comparisons with Yudhisthira, Arjuna and Mount Meru).

Third, the Bhavavarman of the K. 978 inscription is called "a descendant of Cakravartin 1 and a son of Prat-hivindravarman" (cakravarttinaptā and Bhavavarman of other texts is declared to be the son of Viravarman and the grandson of Sarvabhauma [Coedès, 1964, p. 158; Vickery, 1998, p. 74-75], whose name can be interpreted in other texts as the son of Viravarman and the grandson of Sarvabhauma [Coedès, 1964, p. 158; Vickery, 1998, p. 74-75]. meaning "universal ruler", i.e. to be synonymous with chakravartin, but not necessarily. The identification of the Bhavavarmans requires either a new identification-Viravarman with Prathivindravarman, or, as Jacques does, a refusal to accept the pedigree from the inscription of K. 978 and the statement that it refers to another ruler whose name has not been preserved. This results in the invention of ad hoc assumptions.

Fourth, Wat Phu and Si Thep were by no means the only indianized polities of the fifth and sixth centuries-it is enough to point out at least one PLATEAU (Malleret, 1959-1963). I should add that no inscription naming Viravarman (K. 363, K. 496-497, K. 508, K. 1102, K. 1106, K. 359) mentions Devanika (Vickery, 1998, p. 74-75). Therefore, the only reliable fact is that Devanika ruled the Wat Phu region where his inscription is found. Its origin remains unknown.

It is difficult to accept that the reason for Indianization was trade. Due to trade contacts, the inhabitants of Southeast Asia could learn about various phenomena of Indian culture, but why they decided to borrow some of them remains unclear (for details, see [Zakharov, 2009]).

I'll summarize the results. A peer-reviewed monograph is essential for any specialist in the history, art, and architecture of Cambodia. Despite the hypothetical nature of some of the author's statements, it significantly expands our understanding of the Angkor Empire and its predecessors.

list of literature

Zakharov A. O. Istoriografiya problemy "indianizatsii" Yugo-Vostochnoy Azii [Historiography of the problem of "Indianization" of Southeast Asia]. Issue XIII. Moscow: IV RAS, 2009.

Rybakova N. I. Iskusstvo Kambozhi s drevneyshikh vremen do XIV v. [Art of Cambodia from ancient Times to the 14th century].

Sedov L. A. Angkor Empire (socio-economic and state system of Cambodia in the IX-XIV centuries). east lit. Nauka Publishing House, 1967.

Coe M.D. Angkor and the Khmer Civilization. N.Y.: Thames & Hudson, 2003.

Coedès G. Nouvelles données sur les origines du royaume khmèr: la stèle de Văt Luong Kau près de Wat Phu // Bulletin de l'École française d'Éxtrême-Orient. T. 48. N 1. 1956.

Coedès G. Inscriptions du Cambodge. T. VII. P.: École francaise d'Éxtrême-Orient, 1964.

Fletcher R., Penny D., Barbetti M., Pottier C, Heng Than, Khieu Chan & Tous Somaneath. The Greater Angkor Project 2005 - 2009: Issues and Program // Uncovering Southeast Asia's Past: Selected Papers from the 10th International Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, The British Museum, 14th-17th September 2004 I Ed. by E.A. Bacus, I.C. Glover & V.C. Pigott. Singapore: National University of Singapore Press, 2006.

Fletcher R., Pottier C, Johnson W. Angkor and Water Management: The Implications of Massive Masonry Water Control Structures // Archaeology in Southeast Asia: From Homo Erectus to the Living Traditions. Choice of Papers from the 11th International Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, Bougon, 25th-29th September 2006 / Ed. by J. -P. Pautreau, A. -S. Coupey, V. Zeitoun & E. Rambault. Bougon: The 11th International Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, 2008.

Freeman M., Jacques Cl. Ancient Angkor. Bangkok: River Books, 2006.

Higham Ch. The Civilization of Angkor. Berkeley-Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2001.

Jacques Cl. Angkor: Cities and Temples. Bangkok: River Books, 2006.

Malleret L. L'Archéologie du delta du Mékong. T I-IV. P.: École Francaise d'Éxtrême-Orient, 1959 - 1963.

Miksic J.N. Historical Dictionary of Ancient Southeast Asia. Lanham, Maryland-Toronto-Plymouth, UK: The Scarecrow Press, 2007 (Historical Dictionaries of Ancient Civilizations and Historical Eras, No. 18).

Roveda V. Images of the Gods: Khmer Mythology in Cambodia, Laos and Thailand. Bangkok: River Books, 2005.

Roveda V Sacred Angkor: The Carved Reliefs of Angkor Wat. Bangkok: River Books, 2007.

Zhou Daguan. A Record of Cambodia: The Land and Its People: Translated with an Introduction and Notes by Peter Harris. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 2007.

Vickery M. Society, Economics, and Politics in Pre-Angkor Cambodia: The 7th-8th Centuries. Tokyo: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies for UNESCO, 1998.

1 J. Sedee and M. Vickery translate "the grandson of Chakravartin" [Vickery, 1998, p. 75, 77]. However, Vickery, judging by his statement about the "ancestor Chakravartin" and writing the term with a capital letter, admits the possibility of a different pedigree and interpretation of the word cakravartin as a personal name (usually interpreted in the sense of a universal ruler).

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