Civis populus ut objectum et subjectum in bellis Introducere: Reconsideratio rerum civilium in conflictibus bellicis In the classical theory of war, from Clausewitz to the beginning of the XX century, the civilian population was primarily considered as an object: a demographic and economic resource ("rear"), a source of replenishment for the army, and also as a passive victim ("collateral damage" – incidental damage) or an instrument of pressure on the enemy. However, historical practice, especially since the era of total wars and national liberation movements, has shown that civilians often become subjects – active participants in resistance, bearers of legitimacy, and a key factor in achieving political goals of the conflict. This evolution reflects the transition from wars of cabinets and regular armies to ideological, networked, and hybrid wars. 1. Historica evolution: ab objecto ad "totalis mobilisatio" Antiquitas et Mediaevalitas: Civis populus (incolae urbium) often was the main object of violence (massacre, slavery) after the capture of a fortress. This was a tactic of intimidation and a form of payment for the army. However, in peasant uprisings (Jacquerie, Hussite Wars) the civilians themselves became subjects of armed resistance. Epocha "cabinet war" (XVII–XVIII saecula): With the development of regular armies and the law of treaties (beginning of codification in treatises of Hugo Grotius), the civilian population began to be distinguished as a protected category, although this was rarely observed in practice. War was considered the affair of professional armies. Napoleonic and "total" wars (XIX–XX saecula): A turning point. Napoleon introduced conscription – mass recruitment of civilians into the army, making them subjects in the form of soldiers. In the First and especially the Second World Wars, the blurring of the boundary between the front and the rear led to the concept of "total war," where the civilian population deliberately became the object of ... Read more